Why the Proactive Civil Society and Intelligentsia so Detached with Dantewada or Lalgarh? The Change in Bengal is the Only Focus of Brahmin Intelligentsia!Maoists preventing census operation in Chhattisgarh!Freedom of speech coming under threat in India, says media watch!
Tharoor on parliamentary panel on external affairs and IPL SCAM Patched Up So Sweetly irrelevant Sweat Equity!US, Australia warn of terror attacks in India!
Indian Holocaust My Father`s Life and Time - THREE HUNDRED SIXTY
Palash Biswas
http://indianholocaustmyfatherslifeandtime.blogspot.com/
Why the Proactive Civil Society and Intelligentsia so Detached with Dantewada or Lalgarh?
Why should they? Indian Democratic Republic Immersed into US Israel sponsored Free Market Democracy, has Excluded the SC, ST, OBC and Minority Communities, the Aboriginal Landscape as well as Human scape. You would Never get any Mileage, Resource or Recognition into the Hell Losing in the Dark World of Segregation, Persecution, Displacement, Famine, Calamity, Torture and Atrocity, Bonded labour and Enslaved Life, Job Loss and Displacement from Livelihood, Land and Home, Exploitation of Nature and Nature Associated People, Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing, Pandemic, Exodus and Human Trafficking, Green Hunt and operation Godavari and the Maoist Menace. Rather it is safe to issue Press statements and writing in air cooled space! It is safe in the Capitals where you are FREE to shout against anything and you are well Protected during your Democratic Peaceful Protest. Branded Rebel is a Privileged status of Greater value in this world on Fire!
Video results for Nandigram Genocide
nandigram genocide
29 min - 20 Apr 2007
video.google.comNandigram Genocide: A Living Testament (Part 1 ...
8 min - 10 May 2008
www.youtube.comNandigram Genocide: A Living Testament (Part 4 ...
8 min - 14 May 2008
www.youtube.comNandigram Genocide and Gestapo
14 Mar 2007 ... Nandigram Genocide and Gestapo. Palash Biswas. (Contact: Palash C Biswas, C/O Mrs Arati Roy, Gosto Kanan, Sodepur, Kolkata -&00110, India. ...
o3.indiatimes.com/singurkatha/archive/2007/.../3805231.aspx - Cached - Similarनंदीग्राम लाल सलाम: Nandigram Genocide: Demands ...
26 Mar 2007 ... Nandigram Genocide: Demands and Details. Palash Biswas Demands raised by a fact-finding team: 1.A Judicial Enquiry with a seating Supreme ...
nandigramlalsalam.blogspot.com/.../nandigram-genocide-demands-and-details.html - CachedRevolutionary Path: Terrorist Genocide in Nandigram
15 Mar 2007 ... Terrorist Genocide in Nandigram. Friends, by now all of you must have come to know that the social fascist regime of CPM and its bloody CM ...
revolutionarypath.blogspot.com/.../terrorist-genocide-in-nandigram_15.html - Cached - SimilarNandigram genocide must be on agenda: Mamata
25 May 2007 ... The "genocide" in Nandigram must be on the agenda of any future all-party meeting to be attended by her, Trinamool Congress chief Mamata ...
www.rediff.com › News - Cached - SimilarNandigram Genocide: A Living Testament « Japes
12 Jun 2008 ... Nandigram Genocide: A Living Testament. Part (1 of4). Part (2 of4). Part (3 of4). Part (4 of4). Ask Rehabilitation: Get Jail ...
japes.wordpress.com/2008/06/12/nandigram/ - CachedNandigram Genocide A Living Testament Part 1 Of 4 3GP MP4 FLV Download
Nandigram Genocide A Living Testament Part 1 Of 4.
www.3gpdb.com/videoy.php?b...nandigram-genocide-a-living... - CachedThe Indian Economy Blog » Nandigram
19 Mar 2007 ... The Nandigram genocide is not the first one under the CPM rule,there is the case of MARICHJHAPI.I heard it from my father. ...
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The Change in Bengal is the Only Focus of Brahmin Intelligentsia! Just look on the Faces Projected on the Bill Boards of PARIVARTAN, Change who came out in thousands on Kolkata Streets under scorching sun protesting Nandigram Genocide. They seemed to be Loud Speakers against the Genocide Culture, Regimented Gestapo. The same People are MUM on Dantewada and Lalgarh as it involves the Risk of Persecution, personal loss. No one seems to have the Guts and will to stand against the ABSOLUTE Corporate Colonial State power led by the LPG Mafia!They enjoy Apathy against the Excluded Communities, the Aboriginal Indigenous Black Untouchables! They Kept MUM against MARICHJHANPI Massacre and continued to support the Brahamin Marxist Forum and Glorified the Manusmriti Rule as Bangla Nationality. They Wrote and Portrayed SOFT Hard PORN illustrating the post Modern Metro or Suburbans remaining detached with the Rural, Agrarian, Untouchable India! They Centralised Everything in Kolkata and ejected out the UNWANTED out of Bengali Geopolitics!
Being Rebel on Nandigram Singur Land Acquisition, pushed them in Powerful Mamata Camp and in the Pay Roll of the India Incs Governance and Manusmriti Apartheid zionist Brahaminical Hegemony! They risked the Marxist Favour as Marxism in Bengal lost its bases very quickly and the Opportunist Intelligentsia as well as Civil Society Unplugged the Connection Live and Constant for THREE Full decades and LOST NOTHING!
They have nothing to say the ECONOMIC Reforms, PPP Pattern, Disinvestment, Privatisation of Agriculture, Knowledge Economy, Health Tour. These Worshipped Bengali Icons are not little Concerned with the Plight of THIRTY Million Bengali and Tamil Untouchable Refugees and the Tribal world Seized in Central India. Rather they support Chidamaram`s Corporate war supporting Brahamin kanya Mamata Bannerjee and are not ASHAMED to have Favour, Appointment, Salary, Allowances, Prizes, Fellowship, Foreign Tours,Grants, ADS for the Literary, Artistic Masturbation!
Marichjhanpi Genocide
2 min 55 sec - 8 Feb 2008 -
An Open Petition in Video: Exclusive Exposure of Evidences. This is a research based Documentary film in English,Bengali and Hindi. We worked for the ...
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Just Visit nandigram United to have the Documents on Marichjhapi ...
21 Jan 2008 ... Know the details of MARICHJHANPI Genocide, gross violation of Human and Civil Rights and demand Justice Immediately. ...
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Kharat, SOS - Mandal S O Mhapraan jogendra Nath mandal, Writer who Exposed marichjhanpi Genocide Phone 033-2671-2308 Gautam Sarkar, Editor Adhikar patrika, ...
www.harmfuladditives.com/hd/index.php?t=Marichjhanpi - Cachedinternational post: Caste Discrimination Translated into Ethnic ...
Even the then Police Super of North 24 parganas, the officer in chareg of the marichjhanpi genocide discuses the role played by Ram Chatterjee and other ...
internationalpost.blogspot.com/.../caste-discrimination-translated-into.html - CachedYouTube - Marichjhapi Massacre Part-I
26 Jun 2009 ... Marichjhanpi Genocide Added to. Quicklist2:55 · Marichjhanpi Genocide. 2826 views. Indegeneous · Salma Hayek-Antonio Banderas-El Mariachi ...
www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQfTilDOj-E - Cached - SimilarPalash chandra Biswas's Blog at BIGADDA >> MARICHJHANPI day on ...
30 Jan 2010 ... MARICHJHANPI day on 31st JAN. NO More Marichjhanpi! ... and Gestapo head Genocide Master Comrade Jyoti Basu was Ruling and Active, Alive! ...
blogs.bigadda.com/.../marichjhanpi-day-on-31st-jan-no-more-marichjhanpi/ - CachedBengal has no Anil Sarkar but Ruling Marxist Brahminical Hegemony ...
7 Mar 2008 ... Despite reckless Genocide in Marichjhanpi way back in January, 1979.. Ruling Left Front and specifically CPIM has used the East Bengal dalit ...
o3.indiatimes.com/palashbiswas/archive/2008/03/08/4899834.aspx - Cachedwww.outlookindia.com | Chennai Corner
6 Nov 2009 ... She did never support the cause of Refugees and never condemned the Marichjhanpi Genocide, the first in marxist Regie even after thirty ...
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- [ Translate this page ]Nandigram and Marichjhanpi: Genocide Link — 2 comments · palashbiswaskl wrote 2 years ago : On Nandigram firing anniversary, Mamata vows to bring down … ...
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[center][img]http://i.ytimg.com/vi/oztK1LIOVz0/default.jpg[/img] [url=http://videos.desishock.net/198190/Marichjhanpi-Genocide]Marichjhanpi Genocide[/url] ...
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Trinamool Congress chief and Railway Minister Mamata Banerjee Sunday accused the Congress of acting as agents of the Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPI-M) by breaking the alliance for the May 30 civic polls in West Bengal.
Meghalaya Home Minister H.D.R. Lyngdoh Sunday asked rebel leaders of the outlawed Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC) to give up their armed struggle for a Hynniewtrep homeland.
The government is unlikely to move the women's reservation bill in the Lok Sabha during the few remaining days of the budget session before parliament goes into recess around May 7, Congress sources said.
There are indications that the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are working out a formula for rotation of power to end the political stalemate in Jharkhand, according to sources in the two partes.Senior Bharatiya Janata Party leader M. Venkaiah Naidu on Sunday said that his party would take a final decision on formation of new government in Jharkhand with the support of Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) over the next 24 hours.Hemant Soren, who has emerged as the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha's (JMM) key negotiator with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) to save the Jharkhand government, Sunday claimed his father Shibu Soren would continue to be the chief minister.
Maoists preventing census operation in Chhattisgarh!
Freedom of speech coming under threat in India, says media watch!
Verdict on Kasab's fate in 26/11 case tomorrow!US, Australia warn of terror attacks in India!
Tharoor on parliamentary panel on external affairs and IPL SCAM Patched Up So Sweetly irrelevant Sweat Equity! Shashi Tharoor, former minister of state for external affairs, has been nominated as a member of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs by Lok Sabha Speaker Meira Kumar.Confirming the news, Lok Sabha MP P.C. Chacko Sunday said: 'Tharoor is nominated as a member because of his interest in the field and his experience in this area.'On the other hand,The Left parties will meet Monday to decide whether to move a breach of privilege motion against Prime Minister Manmohan Singh for speaking outside parliament on the Indian Premier League (IPL) controversy.
The United States and Australia on Saturday warned of "imminent" terror attacks on a number of popular shopping centres in New Delhi, stepping up their previous alerts.
Suspected Maoists are disrupting the first phase of India's 2011 census operation that commenced in various districts of Chhattisgarh.
Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) supremo Mayawati has reportedly expelled about 5,00 party workers and leaders for dubious and criminal intentions with immediate effect from the party.
Terrorists will try to destabilise the country and stop the holding of Commonwealth Games in Delhi, which has become an "attractive" target for them but there is no need to panic, Delhi Chief Minister Sheila Dikshit said on Sunday.Meanwhile,Janet Napolitano, the US Secretary of Homeland Security, said today that the unexploded car bomb found in Times Square in New York late yesterday appeared to be an "amateurish" terrorism attempt.
WELCOME TO DAKSHIN BASTAR DANTEWADA DISTRICT
Profile of the south Bastar district and places of tourist interest. Includes a photo gallery.
dantewada.gov.in/ - Cached - SimilarDantewada district - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dantewada District, also known as Dantewara District or Dakshin Bastar District (South Bastar District), is a district in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh. ...
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Dantewada (also known as Dantewara) (Hindi: दंतेवाडा) is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Dantewada district in the state of Chhattisgarh, India. ...
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OneindiaUP STF nabs 2 more suspects in Dantewada massacre - 6 hours ago
The racket is said to have allegedly supplied ammunition to the naxalites involved in the Dantewada massacre. The arrests were made after the UP police ...MyNews.in - 108 related articles »
A healing touch for Dantewada? - Times of IndiaDantewada effect? CRPF 'suspends' anti-Maoist drive in Bastar ...
12 Apr 2010 ... "Dantewada attack has shocked the CRPF. While we are continuing offensive against Maoists in the forest areas of Bastar, the CRPF is not ...
timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dantewada.../5787765.cms - CachedDantewada diary: Notes from Ground Zero - India - The Times of India
Someone who knows the terrain well warned: "On the surface, everything appears normal. It is deep in the forests that things are happening.
timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dantewada.../5781349.cms - CachedDantewada massacre: The post-mortem
7 Apr 2010 ... For Home Minister P Chidambaram, who has spearheaded the recent thrust on anti-Naxalism, the Chintalnag massacre comes as a tremendous ...
www.ndtv.com/.../dantewara-massacre-the-post-mortem-19434.php - CachedThe Hindu : News / National : Eight Maoists killed in Dantewada ...
9 Apr 2010 ... The massacre of 76 security personnel by Maoists in a dense forest of Dantewada on Tuesday did not come without losses for the outfit whose ...
beta.thehindu.com/news/national/article392693.ece - CachedMaoists attack again, kill 73 CRPF men in Dantewada- Hindustan Times
Maoists attack again, kill 73 CRPF men in Dantewada. Ejaz Kaiser,. Raipur, April 06, 2010 ... Maoists attack 4 CRPF camps in Dantewada ...
www.hindustantimes.com/...Dantewada/H1-Article3-527667.aspx - CachedDantewada District Map - Chhattisgarh India - Maps of India
Dantewada District Map showing important locations, rail and road network.
www.mapsofindia.com › States - Cached - SimilarForces hunt for Dantewada ambush mastermind - Politics - Political ...
8 Apr 2010 ... Ganesh is not only the area commander of the Maoists in the Dantewada region, but he also trains and commands the People's Liberation ...
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District Magistrate of Bijapur R Prasanna said the census team is facing several difficulties as Maoist supporters in many villages are preventing them from meeting local residents and from compiling the relevant data.
"We are facing a lot of problems in around 250 villages. At a few places, the census team was turned back, at some places they were held hostage for a night and then released in the morning. In villages the team was not allowed to enter," said R Prasanna.
The designated enumerators, fearing their own safety, are in a dilemma as Maoists supporters have threatened the villagers against responding to the survey census exercise undertaken by the Central Government.
Despite these, odd trends, the district administration of Bijapur has launched a drive to create mass awareness on the need to reckoned in the national census so as to avail the various benefits and also an individual identity.
"We are talking to the village elders about the importance of census. All the government schemes like the pension scheme, ration quota, Indira Housing Scheme etc are all based on the census. That is why we don't want any villager to be left behind and for this reason we are publicising the importance of the census," added Prasanna.
The first phase of the census operations began in Chhattisgarh on April 30.
The 2011 Census of India, the fifteenth census in the country and the seventh after independence, commenced on April 1 with President Pratibha Devisingh Patil being the first person to be enumerated.
Two and a half million census officials have been assigned this task of compiling details of every Indian citizen appear in the 2011 Census, who will also seek information for the creation of the National Population Register (NPR).
The mammoth exercise will be undertaken in two phases.
The exercise faces many challenges, which include coverage of a vast geographical area, widespread illiteracy and diverse cultures and languages.
The Myth of Aryan Invasion of India
Even though Indian Vedic scholars like Dayananda saraswati, Bal Gangadhar ... For scholars to take a stand against this biased interpretation of the 'Vedas' ...
www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/.../aryan_frawley.html - Cached - SimilarArizona stands alone against foreign ... - Political Junkies ...
4 posts - 3 authors - Last post: 2 days agocreate a tribe ... Arizona stands alone against foreign invasion "The state of Arizona is standing alone to prevent itself - and the rest of ...
tribes.tribe.net/.../thread/2f287c03-06f6-41e6-a387-512860fe7a0e - CachedGet more discussion results
History of India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the history of the Indian subcontinent prior to the .... of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of local people ..... against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India - 12 hours ago - Cached - SimilarAmerican Indian Wars - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This practice did much to destroy Native tribes during the California Gold Rush. ... Owens Valley Indian War (1861–1864) War against the Owens Valley Paiutes ... In academic history, Francis Jennings's The Invasion of America: Indians ...
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create a tribe ... Arizona stands alone against foreign invasion ... itself - and the rest of the country - from being destroyed by a foreign invasion. ...
heateddebate.tribe.net/.../0c3ae79b-3ea5-4325-990c-28d6f01bdb40 - CachedThe aryan invasion myth - fact or fiction?
There is no solid evidence that the Aryans belonged to a nomadic tribe. .... Dynasties and rulers with Indian names appear and disappear all over west ... With so much evidence against the Aryan Invasion theory, one wonders as to why ...
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These notorious warlike tribes renewed their invasion against the strong ... Hun invasion led to socio-economic and cultural transformation of the Indian ...
www.indianetzone.com › ... › Gupta Empire in India - Cached - SimilarAmazon.com: The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth ...
Amazon.com: The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American ... ironically worked against the Indian nations as the tribes employed new ...
www.amazon.com › ... › Economics › Natural Resources - Cached - SimilarSusquehannock Indians of the Eastern Shore
•Susquehannock Indian Tribe• Local History .... to continue their war of conquest against the Delaware and Chesapeake Algonquin tribes. .... With English help, the Susquehannock were able to turn back a major Iroquois invasion in 1663. ...
www.easternshore.com/.../hist_susquehannock.html - United States - Cached - SimilarArizona stands alone against foreign ... - ACLU - tribe.net
31 Mar 2010 ... create a tribe ... rest of the country - from being destroyed by a foreign invasion. ... Re: Arizona stands alone against foreign invasion ...
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Sporadic violence marks Maoists' indefinite Nepal closure
With a constitutional crisis and president's rule threatening Nepal, its former Maoist guerrillas Sunday began an indefinite general strike paralysing the entire nation after talks with the ruling parties failed and embattled Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal refused to quit.
While the capital remained largely peaceful, sporadic violence was reported across the nation as protesters clashed with security forces, attacked at least one government office and sought to prevent a major high school examination from being held.
There was fear and panic in Chitwan, the picturesque town in southern Nepal visited by droves of tourists, after a powerful grenade was found near a bridge. Though security forces were unable to say immediately who had planted it, Maoist involvement was suspected as last week a Maoist platoon commander of their People's Liberation Army was arrested while travelling towards Kathmandu with a grenade.
Students affiliated to the Maoists stormed the centres where 12th grade examinations were being held and forced the examinees to leave. As security forces intervened, a battle ensued with the invaders hurling bricks and the forces retaliating by firing teargas shells.
Exams were prevented nationwide, including in the capital, leading to clashes.
In Pokhara city, another popular tourist destination, protesters were reported to have been intruding into houses and intimidating people.
In Birganj, Nepal's biggest trade centre after the capital, a pressure cooker bomb was found at a public place, adding to the fear.
In Butwal town close to Kathmandu, a government office was attacked for defying the strike call.
After an impressive show of might in Kathmandu and other major cities on May Day when red-flag waving Maoist cadre and supporters turned the capital red, the sea of protesters continued to roll through Sunday cutting off transport, closing shops, markets and industries and disrupting school examinations.
Former Maoist ministers, MPs and top leaders led protesters at major intersections to clamp the general strike that Maoist chief and former prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal Prachanda vowed would continue as long as the prime minister remained in power.
'This is not a protest by the Maoists alone but a people's movement,' said Maoist MP Janardan Sharma, who was also one of the deputy commanders of the party's guerrilla army, the People's Liberation Army that fought a 10-year war against the government from 1996.
'The desire for peace, a new constitution and change is a desire shared by all, not just the Maoists,' said Sharma, who led a march of protesters in the capital. 'People have assessed which party is loyal to the aspiration and joined the movement. Ask around and you will see they include supporters of the ruling parties as well.'
The protests have crippled the capital, central Nepal, the Terai plains adjoining India in the south and the farwestern area, cutting off the two great highways connecting Nepal with China in the north and India in the south.
Women were present in large numbers at the rallies, so were observers from UN agencies and human rights organisations who began monitoring the protests after urging both the government and the opposition party to show restraint.
Ambulances, diplomatic vehicles, essential services and the media were allowed to move around freely and the former rebels, in a bid to prevent panic-buying of foodstuff, said the blockade would be lifted for two hours from 6 p.m.
In places in the capital, the blockade turned into a carnival with protesters singing and dancing.
Though Prachanda, who announced the strike at a May Day rally in the capital Saturday asked the business community and hotels to bear the inconvenience as it was for the sake of peace and a new constitution, Sunday's strike hit hard students and people seeking medical treatment.
'I came to Kathmandu for treatment for my father who is 82 and has a heart problem,' said Dinanath Pokhrel, who had come from Palpa district. 'I am a poor farmer and will soon run out of money if the strike continues.'
'I walked for two hours to reach my exam centre in Dillibazar,' lamented a 12th grader who did not want to be named. 'But our exam was cancelled and now there's uncertainty about when it will be rescheduled. A 12-hour daily power cut and now this fear and uncertainty has added to our woes.'
Prachanda said Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh had pledged support for the current government while meeting the Nepali premier during the recently concluded SAARC Summit in Bhutan. That, he alleged, stiffened the premier's resolve not to resign.
Embattled Prime Minister Nepal addressed the nation Saturday, saying his coalition government was elected constitutionally and would not be brought down by street protests.
He also urged the Maoists to call off their strike and return to dialogue, a plea that was rejected by the former guerrillas after late-night talks for an agreement broke down.
Home Minister Bhim Rawal Sunday said the government was showing full restraint but would be forced to take retaliatory measures if the protesters crossed the constitutional limit.
The general strike makes it certain that Nepal would not be able to get a new constitution by May 28, the deadline agreed to during a peace pact signed between the Maoists and the government in 2006 that ended a decade of Maoist insurgency.
Should the May 28 deadline fail without an agreement between the warring sides, the nation would be plunged into a constitutional crisis.
Parliament would be dissolved and the government lose its validity, leading to president's rule and the declaration of a state of emergency.
Mamata Banerjee announces candidates for all 141 KMC seats
Ahead of the civic polls in West Bengal, Trinamool chief Mamata Banerjee on Sunday announced candidates for all 141 seats in the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) elections here.Addressing a press conference, while releasing her party candidates' list for the civic polls slated to be held on May 30 along with 81 other municipal bodies in the state, Ms. Mamata blamed the Congress, for the collapse of the alliance for the civic polls, saying: "Despite their refusal to leave a single seat to us in Murshidabad (a Congress stronghold), we gave them 25 here."
Replying to a question, Ms. Mamata having single-handedly upstaged CPI(M)-led Left Front from all south Bengal seats including the metropolis during the last Lok Sabha elections, said: "There is no question of a friendly fight (against Congress). In war, the term (friendly fight) does not exist."
Warning the Congress at the Centre, Ms. Mamata said, "Just because we have entered into an alliance doesn't mean they can say or do anything."
"It's not a Congress government, it's a UPA government and the Congress has 206 seats," she said in an oblique reference to its power as the second largest UPA constituent with 19 Lok Sabha seats.
On Saturday, West Bengal Pradesh Congress Committee (WBPCC) announced candidates for 88 seats following clearance from the party high command.
It decided to go it alone after Trinamool Congress offered them only 25 wards against their demand for 51, including the ones they had come first or second in the last KMC polls in 2005.West Bengal - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- 2 visits - 27/09/09Civil Society Information Exchange Pvt. Ltd. http://www.indiatogether.org/states/bengal.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-26. ^ "India: metropolitan areas". ...
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In this backdrop, the West Bengal Civil Society Support Programme (WBCSSP) was launched as part of DFID's West Bengal strategy to support the state in its ...
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CSOs shortlisted for pre funding appraisal in West - POOREST AREAS ...
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POOREST AREAS CIVIL SOCIETY PROGRAMME. West Bengal- CSOs approved by ERPSC for Prefunding Appraisal. Sr. Name of the CSO. Contact Address ...
www.pacsindia.org/West%20Bengal%20-%20Shortlisted%20CSOs%20for%20Prefunding%20Appraisal.pdf India: End Harassment of West Bengal Activist | Human Rights Watch
9 Apr 2010 ... Shrinking Space for Civil Society, Peaceful Critics Merits EU Concern ... should drop charges against a West Bengal human rights defender ...
www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/04/.../india-end-harassment-west-bengal-activistLegal Aid Services, West Bengal (LASWEB)
Legal Aid Services, West Bengal (LASWEB), one of the pioneering legal aid offering civil society organizations in India, empowers the poor and the ...
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14 Nov 2007 ... Kolkata, Nov 14 : Thousands of people from varied field, including the intelligentsia, took out a protest march here on Wednesday against ...
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Demystifying Electoral Registration in Partnership with Civil Society
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Civil Society. -Debashis Sen. Chief Electoral Officer, West Bengal. The common urban citizen, busy as she is, is keen to get her ...
eci.nic.in/eci_main/dj/CEO_bengal.pdf Lokayukta, Government and Civil Society Network for Good ...
The Application Form is Attached below : Lokayukta Government & Civil Society Network for Good Governance. Office of the Lokayukta West Bengal ...
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West Bengal Civil Society Support Program (WBCSSP) has been developed as West Bengal state strategy to support the state in its efforts towards poverty ...
www.pria.org/en/archieve/77 - CachedDFID walks out of Bengal project
28 Nov 2009 ... While admitting that the sudden pull out of civil society support programme ... It is expected to roll out in West Bengal in early 2010. ...
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Won't have any alliance with Cong in West Bengal: MamataTimes of India - 1 hour ago No longer there exists any alliance in Bengal." "Those, who have broken the alliance, should take the responsibility for it. They should realise we will ... Video: Kolkata civic polls: Allies turn rivals NDTV.com Mamata announces candidates for all 141 KMC seats Press Trust of India Where is our Ray of light?Daily News & Analysis - - 12 hours ago Mumbai: Be it his literary works such as Feluda or films like Pather Panchali — the legacy of late Bengali film-maker Satyajit Ray continues to live on ... Satyajit Ray's Professor Shonku to be filmed by Sandip Press Trust of India Satyajit Ray's son coming up with Feluda movie Thaindian.com Satyajit Ray: Offering Bengali identity to the world The Daily Star Taste the best of Bengal, in BangaloreDaily News & Analysis - - 14 hours ago For the casual palate, by that I mean for a non-Bong — Bengali food would mean just fish, rice and not to forget the mouth-watering rasgullas and sandesh. ... East Bengal disappoint againCalcutta Telegraph - Apr 30, 2010 Calcutta: The first thing that East Bengal coach Phillippe de Ridder said at the post-match press conference, on Friday, was: "I am sorry for the fans. ... East Bengal down but not out, to take on Sporting Clube Times of India Sporting hold East Bengal 1-1 Press Trust of India Maoists blow up rail track in West BengalThe Hindu - Apr 27, 2010 Maoist guerrillas blew up a foot of rail track in West Bengal's West Midnapore district, disrupting train services on day two of their shutdown in three ... Maoists blow up Railway Track in West Bengal BreakingNewsOnline. Maoists kill CPI-M leader in West BengalThaindian.com - 6 hours ago Kolkata, May 2 (IANS) Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPI-M) leader Dayal Mahato was shot dead by Maoists in Jamberia area of West Bengal's West Midnapore ... CPI(M) worker killed in West Midnapore district Press Trust of India The Blue Part Of The Flame Outlook Email this story Excise glare on KKR after IT searchesTimes of India - Apr 30, 2010 KOLKATA: Central Excise officers raided the Cricket Association of Bengal (CAB) office at the Eden Gardens on Friday to check if it had met the tax ... Association under tax scanner Calcutta Telegraph IPL scam: service tax officials raid CAB Press Trust of India Email this story West Bengal, Kerala bear brunt of Bharat BandhIndian Express - Apr 27, 2010 ... especially in the Left-ruled states of West Bengal and Kerala where educational institutions were closed and streets wore a deserted look. ... Video: Nationwide bandh affects rail, air services NewsX Opposition's bandh against price rise hits life in West Bengal, Kerala, UPHindustan Times - Apr 26, 2010 The state governments in West Bengal and Kerala adopted a lenient stand towards their employees. While no public holiday was declared, the two governments ... Hunt for IM terror cellsTimes of India - Apr 29, 2010 Intelligence inputs on the 'imminent threat' and a group of IM operatives sneaking into Bengal have sent the administration into battle mode. ... Terror alert in Kolkata Daily News & Analysis 'MHA issues terror alert for Kolkata' Hindustan Times Kolkata on the radar of IM terror attacks dailynews365 Stay up to date on these results: |
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Orissa SOG arrests two Maoists in Gajapati District
Orissa Special Operation Group (SOG) arrested two Maoist cadres in Gajapati District on Sunday.According to SOG, the arrested were in the Pallapadu Forest Range.
The Maoists have been identified as Manas Majhi alias Laden and Giffio Pradhan alias Gullu.
Along with the Maoists, a substantial quantity of arms and explosives that consisted of 25 detonators, huge quantity of fuse wire, starters and a single barrel rifle was also seized.
According to police, both the Maoists were involved in various numbers of attacks in the region.
They are active members of Bansadhara Committee of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), police added.
"They (Maoists) were involved in various Naxal attacks in the area. They were wanted in Raipankha bus cases where they had burnt the government buses as well as burnt up the two (telephone) towers at Raipankha and Bilikot area, said Sanjiv Arora, Superintendent of Police, Gajpati.
"From them, one SBML gun, some explosives like detonators, starters, fuse wires and explosives have been seized," he added.
Police is investigating in the matter and further interrogating of the Maoists is in progress.'BJP to take final decision over new Jharkhand Govt. tomorrow': Senior Bharatiya Janata Party leader M. Venkaiah Naidu on Sunday said that his party would take a final decision on formation of new government in Jharkhand with the support of Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) over the next 24 hours.
"The party had decided to withdraw support to Shibu Soren; subsequently JMM leader wrote a letter to the party president (Nitin Gadkari) and to Advani ji saying a mistake has happened and they want to extend support to BJP government to prevent the Congress party from coming to power. The party is discussing the issue. There is no confusion whatsoever; we are very clear in our mind. A decision will be taken by tomorrow," said M Venkaiah Naidu.
It may be recalled that the BJP had withdrawn support to Shibu Soren's JMM-led coalition government in Jharkhand on April 28 after he voted for the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance government during a cut motion brought up by the Opposition in Lok Sabha on April 27.
JMM president and Jharkhand state chief Shibu Soren, and his son, Hemant Soren, had subsequently written letters to BJP leaders, expressing their preference at remaining aligned with the BJP.
The National Democratic Alliance (NDA) headed by BJP expressed hopes of ending the impasse over formation of a new government in Jharkhand after the JMM offered to support a BJP-led government.
BJP leadership had recently held talks with its Jharkhand allies-the regional Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) and All Jharkhand Students Union (AJSU) and the Janata Dal (United) and others.
The JMM-BJP coalition government in Jharkhand was formed about four months ago.Karnataka minister resigns over rape charges
Karnataka Food and Civil Supplies Minister Hartalu Hallapa, who is facing charges of raping a friend's wife, resigned from his post on Sunday, NDTV reported.A report of the alleged incident was flashed as a banner headline in the front page of a leading Kannada daily (Vijaya Karnataka) on Sunday.
It was reported that an influential minister in the B S Yeddyrappa-led Government had attempted to sexually molest the wife of his close friend at the latter's house in Shimoga recently.
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CBI probes Ajmer terror suspects' link with Mecca Masjid blast
With the Anti Terrorist Squad of Rajasthan Police making a possible breakthrough in Ajmer blast, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has joined the probe to ascertain the role of arrested persons with the 2007 Mecca Masjid terror strike in Hyderabad.
Official sources said a joint team of ATS, CBI and central security agencies were questioning two of three arrested persons - Davindra Gupta and Chandrashekar - in connection with their possible involvement in the Mecca Masjid blast.
The role of the duo was purchasing of SIM cards and timer devices which were used to trigger the blast in Ajmer on October 12, 2007.
Two pilgrims were killed and nine others, including a child, were injured in the terror attack when a crude bomb went off at the Sufi shrine of Khawaja Moinuddhin Chishti in Ajmer where thousands of devotees had gathered to break their day-long Ramzan fast.
The low-intensity improvised bomb which was kept close to Aasthan-e-Noor went off a minute after the period of fast ended, indicating the similarity of execution timing with the Malegaon and Mecca Masjid blast.
The probe had suggested that modus operandi, nature of explosives and the kind of bomb used in the Ajmer blast resemble Mecca Masjid blast in Hyderabad, the probe of which is being done by the CBI.
The low-intensity improvised bomb which was kept in a tin box, with a packing of iron pipes, in Ajmer was similar to the contraption used in the Mecca blast, the sources said.
CBI was refraining to comment on the issue officially, but the sources said a team had moved in to question the duo and their links with some of the accused identified by the agency in connection with the Mecca Masjid blasts.
Five persons died in the blast and nine in the subsequent police firing outside the mosque on a Friday when thousands of Muslims gathered for prayers on May 18, 2007.
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Verdict on Kasab's fate in 26/11 case tomorrow
Seventeen months after terror merchants from Pakistan unleashed death and destruction on the country's financial capital, a court here will pronounce its verdict tomorrow on the fate of lone surviving 26/11 gunman Ajmal Kasab and two alleged Indian conspirators.
Kasab, a native of Faridkot, along with nine slain terrorists, has been charged with killing 166 people, including 25 foreigners, and injuring 304 others at the instance of Lashkar-e-Taiba.
The Indian duo - Faheem Ansari and Sabauddin Ahmed - are accused of conspiracy in the brazen attacks. They are alleged to have prepared the maps of terror targets and passed them on to the LeT for execution of their diabolic plan. If held guilty, they may face death penalty.
Freedom of speech coming under threat in India, says media watch
There have been at least 11 instances of attacks on journalists and eight cases of bans, restrictions or regulation of media in India in the last four months, a website devoted to tracking the media in the country has said in a report.
The Free Speech Hub, an initiative of the media watchsite The Hoot, which seeks to monitor instances of attacks and threats to the freedom of speech and expression in the country, said the past four months had also seen seven instances of censorship of books, films and television channels.
There had been at least nine complaints and protests by social and political groups against articles, films, plays or even comments and opinions voiced by prominent citizens and an attack on a media house, it said.
'Freedom of speech in India is balanced precariously between the threat of physical attacks from security forces and social vigilante groups on the one hand and reassurance of protection from higher judicial authorities on the other but the scales seem tipped in favour of the former,' the Free Speech Hub said.
The report, which has tracked threats to free speech in the country since January 2010, has been released on the eve of World Press Freedom Day.
It said that in the first quarter of this year, well-known artist M.F. Husain decided to give up his Indian citizenship, prominent writers like Paul Zachariah and Arundhati Roy were attacked for their views, the former being physically assaulted, two persons lost their lives as they protested the publication of an article on the burqa, actor Shah Rukh Khan was the unexpected upholder of free speech when he refused to apologise to the Shiv Sena for his utterances and two political activists were charged with sedition for their writings.
It said that Gowhar Bhat, a journalist of Greater Kashmir, was 'savagely' beaten up by security forces in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, on April 26, barely a week before the global observance of World Press Freedom Day on May 3. Bhat was covering a demonstration of the opposition Peoples Democratic Party (PDP).
'In the beginning of the year, on Jan 7, photographer Amaan Farooq, was shot at by a senior police officer for covering the aftermath of an encounter in Srinagar. While enquiries have been ordered, the outcome is still awaited.'
'Across the country, in Kalinganagar, Orissa, journalist Amulya Pani was assaulted on April 5 when he went to cover the police firing on villagers there and in Jirabam, Manipur, journalists Moirangthem Romeo and Atom Lukhoi were arrested by Imphal East commandos on March 20, without any assigned reason,' it said.
Citing other instances of attacks on freedom of expression and speech, the report said the response of the judiciary towards SLAPP (Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation) suits and complaints against the exercise of free speech was the bright spot.
However, it said the experience of free speech cases in high courts was not uniform.
Manipur not to allow Naga leader Muivah's visit
The Manipur government has decided not to allow Naga leader Thuingaleng Muivah's visit to the state fearing ethnic trouble in the northeastern state, police said here Sunday.
'In view of the state government's decision, we would not allow him (Muivah) to visit the state,' Manipur Director General of Police Y. Joykumar Singh told IANS.
Muivah, the general secretary of the Isak-Muivah faction of National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-IM), proposed to visit his home place at Somdal village in northern Manipur's Ukhrul district May 3-10. He was scheduled to attend a public reception May 8 at Ukhrul district headquarters.
The 75-year-old Muivah, a Tangkhul Naga from Manipur, was born in interior Somdal village, 100 km north of capital Imphal in Ukhrul district and had last visited his birth place in 1960.
'His (Muivah) visit might escalate further ethnic troubles in the mixed populated areas adjacent to Nagaland,' the state police chief said.
The DGP admitted that the union home ministry earlier asked him to arrange security for the NSCN (IM) general secretary's Manipur visit.
The Manipur cabinet chaired by Chief Minister O. Ibobi Singh, however, decided not to allow the NSCN (IM) leader to visit the state's northern areas.
'We have also communicated the government's decision to the prime minister and the union home Minister,' Manipur Sports and Youth Affairs Minister and government spokesman N. Biren told reporters Saturday night.
Manipur's seven Naga legislators have in a statement welcomed Muivah's visit to the state.
It was not known so far if in view of the Manipur government's decision Muivah would call off the visit.
The NSCN-IM, one of the oldest and most powerful of the about 30 rebel groups in India's northeast, earlier fought for an independent homeland for the Nagas. The demand was scaled down to a Greater Nagaland, which the NSCN(-M) proposed to be formed by merging Naga populated areas of adjoining states with Nagaland.
The governments of Assam, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh have rejected the demand for unification of Naga areas. The central government too has rejected the demand.
The NSCN (IM), which is now holding fresh talks with the central government since March, entered into a ceasefire in August 1997.
An identity for all: UID project fights dust, doubt
Mumbai: As India gears up to build the largest biometric database in the world with the aim of providing most of its 1.2 billion citizens a Unique Identification (UID), perhaps the biggest challenge is smudged fingerprints.
The UID Authority of India will issue the first UIDs linked to a person's demographic and biometric information between August and February, and issue about 600 million such IDs over the next five years to help verify citizens quickly and cheaply. It will be a boon for companies and government agencies alike.
It would give millions of Indians the means to open a bank account, buy a mobile phone, and access welfare services easily, while saving companies and government agencies the expensive and time-consuming process of verifying and establishing identities.
The project, which has drawn the interest of mobile service firms and technology giants including Tata Consultancy Services, Microsoft and Google, is expected to better target and reduce waste in India's multi-billion dollar welfare schemes, including pensions.
"There is a concern that a lot of the welfare benefits that the government provides don't reach the intended beneficiaries because you can't correctly identify them," said Ajit Ranande, chief economist of the Aditya Birla Group in Mumbai.
"The UID will hopefully enable better targeting, identification of beneficiaries, and plug leakages. If you can improve targeting by even 5-10 per cent, it would be a big deal."
Previous governments have also considered creating unique ID numbers. Yet it is the left-leaning Congress government, with its focus on inclusive growth, that pushed the envelope by setting up the UIDAI office and allocating some $444 million to the UID project.
The UID project, named 'Aadhar', is estimated to cost $2.2-$4.4 billion to implement, but will bring in an equal amount in savings annually from the elimination of duplicate and false identities, said Samiran Chakraborty, head of research at Standard Chartered. "The programme may have a significant positive impact on India's growth and fiscal health in the years to come," he said.
But with an estimated 75 million people homeless and millions others criss-crossing the country as migrant workers with little or no documentation, the UIDAI has its work cut out.
UIDAI is working with Census 2011 survey, as well as local government bodies and NGOs to reach millions, including an estimated 410 million people living on less than $1.25 a day, a blot on India's otherwise compelling growth story.
"It all boils down to a lack of proper identity, and the exclusion is debilitating," said Nandan Nilekani, UIDAI chief. "At the same time, India is clocking 8 per cent growth. So it is clearly creating a huge divide; if we want people to be included in the growth story, we need to recognise the people the system doesn't recognise," said Nilekani.
Calluses, Burqas
The average Indian citizen typically has multiple identity cards, including a voter ID, a tax ID, a ration card, passport, driving licence and others. Yet there is no central database, which has created "phantoms" on voter lists and welfare schemes.
Duplicates and fake identities abound, and millions of the poor have no identification at all, which could deny them "a basic right to an acknowledged existence", says Nilekani.
Nilekani, the former chief of No. 2 software firm Infosys Technologies, was handpicked by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to head up UIDAI after he wrote extensively on the need for a unique ID in his book, 'Imagining India', published in 2008.
"Acknowledging the existence of every single citizen automatically compels the state to improve the quality of services, and immediately gives the citizen a fairer, more equitable access to services," said Nilekani.
"This recognition creates a deep awareness of rights, entitlements and duties," he said. Beyond developing the smart cards, the challenge is making the back-end infrastructure secure and scalable, ensuring privacy and integrating agents who issue the numbers, said Nilekani, who has the rank of a cabinet minister.
Among the biggest challenges is securing "clean" fingerprints as part of the biometric identification that will also include an image of the face and of the two irises, in the dusty conditions of rural India, where nearly two-thirds of the population lives.
Frequent power outages are another hurdle, said Sreeni Tripuraneni, chief executive of 4G Identity Solutions, which is conducting pilot tests in Andhra Pradesh. "Most biometric technology was developed for clean, air-conditioned environments, but dust is a big problem in the villages and we sometimes get multiple impressions, or residue." "We also have to carry our own generators for power," said Tripuraneni, whose firm developed an algorithm to remove "noise" from the images, and modified the software for use in India. Operators have also been trained to deal with labourers with deeply calloused hands, for example, or women wearing burqas, said Tripuraneni, who calls the UID "the mother of all databases".
The biggest risk is losing political steam, said Ranade, which would pull the plug on resources and crucial support. "But perhaps we shouldn't be so sceptical about it. In this case, we have not lived in a world where every Indian has a unique ID, so we can only imagine what that would be like."
Chandra, a maid servant in Mumbai who gives her earnings to her employer for safekeeping, is already imagining that world. "I can finally get a cell phone and open a bank account in my name. It will make a big difference to me," she said.
Source: Reuters
UID is a lot of hot air............not likely to come to its logical completion. We all are watching and waiting though ........
@Sunil2010 i didnt quite get your point. And to all of you out there every project requires hardworks and is coupled with failure b4 success. Edison found success after 99 failures.
Successful implementation of the project will mean saving of $ 5 billion annually and this can be correctly allocated to the poor people. The anti-work mentality of indian government employees is a curse for these projects. They come late for work are inefficient in their work and go early, and no one can do anything thanks to Unions!
Immense political will is required and as long as Manmohanji is there i believe it will be possible.
That's above all... FINGER PRINT is the most eye catching word in this news.. Don't tell me why I refer it to Islam...!!!
but it is fact.
The "FINGER PRINT" information is mentioned in Quran. It says that it will never be the same with other person in the world. Alhamdulillah, India is adopting this rule. God bless Indians too.
Hello "Coolscientist273" always do your experiment at home and never is a public stage. This is the fundamentals of professionalism. Please trust me; we are no longer living in STONE AGE.
I fully agree with "Proud Indian". In 21st century we can't say complexity of project is the reason for failure. This is just a silly excuse. If you think that way, then what the hell homework you have done for so long? When the planning was done these critical factors should have been considered as risks, they should have drawn a detailed risk mitigation plan. Your project is derailed, now you wake up and say "this is a complex project"? Please shake your head and check where your visualization is hiding! This is like a student repeatedly failing in exams – the problem is his weak preparation, he can't go and blame examiners. Government is spending huge public money, it has identified quality resources (in paper), and a work plan has been prepared considering all risks…..now why the hell you search for new excuses? Is there is someone monitoring and controlling the project? You can't keep experimenting all the time when you implement such a serious project. You must go with a clear vision and visibility.
No doubt, this is an important project for all Indians. It should have been managed in an accurate way! There should have been several pilots for better tuning of risks. Unfortunately, UID started with technical issues….no one knowing technically how….in the middle of the project they started facing so many issues! It has become an issue management project funded by the citizen of this country. Going nowhere!
The government has nothing to lose. Each day more money has been pumped to the project….that money should have gone to the poor people dying without food and medicine.
Have to say i agree with matpans views. People like Proud Indian are just armchair pessimists who prove detrimental to the society by spreading pessimism. Had there been less pessimists we would have got the green ,white and IT revolutions faster.
Anyways looking objectively at the matter i feel that Nandan was better suited for the post as he has already given a thesis in his book and is more younger than Dr. Kalam, which is essential as getting 1.3 billion people ID's is a tough and lengthy task. Every revolution requires a lot of hard work and this is one of the best investments a government can make.
Learning from mistakes allow scope for improvisation. Cleaning the finger by alcohol swabs could help and also they could ask for increase in funds for provision of generators. Sadly UIDIA is functioning poorly in my home state as the Ruling Left are averse to the Idea.
Another thing to be done is to provide voting ability to millions of NRI's. They have always been a part of Indias economy by bringing other countries resources here.
Implementation of any IT enabled system brings with it a by-product which is Transparency.
The biggest hurdle to implement UID will definitely come from the corrupt politicians and their clouts in the bureaucracy.
Best of luck to the UID team. India expects a lot from you.
Jai Ho!
There are many hurdles in the implementation of the UID. But the biggest hurdle is people like 'the Proud Indian' and his ilk. Any achievement must start with a first step. If every Indian thought like the Proud Indian, we'd all be slimy slugs.
Let it go ahead! Get the likes of Stalin and guys drwon themselves in the Bay of Bengal. Try to to understand human psychology. Everyone will side with a success story, Including the 'Proud Indian'.
U.S. says failed NY bomb a potential terrorist attack
Sun, May 2 06:46 PM
Enlarge Photo A NYPD officer in an bomb suit examines a Nissan Pathfinder sport utility vehicle parked...The United States views a car bomb that failed to go off in New York's Times Square as a potential terrorist attack, Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano said on Sunday.
Police tipped off by a street vendor found and defused the bomb inside a sport utility vehicle in the business, shopping and entertainment area of Midtown Manhattan when it was packed with tourists and theatre-goers on a warm Saturday evening.
"We're taking this very seriously," Napolitano told CNN's "State of the Union" program. "We're treating it as if it could be a potential terrorist attack."
Police said no motive or suspect had been identified. Napolitano and other officials have not specified whether the suspects are Americans or foreigners.
Authorities said the failed bomb -- made of propane, gasoline and fireworks -- could have killed many people.
"This wasn't make believe. This wasn't a false alarm. This was the real deal -- to hurt people," said Fire Commissioner Sal Cassano, adding the force of the bomb could have taken down the front of a building if it had gone off.
New York has been on high alert for an attack since the Sept. 11 attacks in 2001 in which hijacked airliners toppled the World Trade Centre's twin towers, killing thousands of people.
NO IDEA WHO OR WHY
New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg told an early morning news conference: "We have no idea who did this or why."
Times Square was evacuated but most of it was reopened to vehicles and pedestrians shortly after 5 a.m. (0900 GMT) on Sunday.
"Luckily, no one is hurt and now the full attention of city, state and federal law enforcement will be turned to bringing the guilty party to justice in this act of terrorism," New York Governor David Paterson said in a statement.
Paterson's statement did not specify whether he suspected foreign or domestic militants in the failed bombing.
Bloomberg said a T-shirt vendor noticed "an unoccupied suspicious vehicle" and alerted a police officer on horseback, who saw the dark-green Nissan Pathfinder had smoke coming from vents near the back seat and smelled of gun powder.
The vehicle was put on the back of a flat-bed truck, covered with a tarpaulin and removed from Times Square by authorities at about 6 a.m. (1000 GMT).
The bomb was discovered around 6:30 p.m. (2230 GMT) in the vehicle parked on 45th Street and Broadway with its engine running and hazard lights flashing, officials said. It had Connecticut license plates that did not match the vehicle.
The bomb squad removed and dismantled three propane tanks, consumer grade fireworks, two filled five-gallon (19-litre) gasoline containers, two clocks, batteries in each of the clocks, electrical wire and other components.
A locked metal box resembling a gun locker was also removed and taken to a safe location to be detonated.
(Additional reporting by Steve Eder, Clare Baldwin, Jonathan Spicer and Deepa Seetharaman in New York and Jeremy Pelofsky and Ross Colvin in Washington; Editing by Howard Goller and John O'Callaghan)
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www.kamat.com/kalranga/wb/2360.htm - CachedBengal Spotlight: The Kafkaesque streak in Indian politics ...
10 May 2009 ... Double faced Bengal Intellectuals always keep mum . ... streak in Indian politics :: Bengali Intellectuals read it several times :: ...
bengalspotlight.blogspot.com/.../kafkaesque-streak-in-indian-politics.html - Cached - SimilarLetter from Kolkata: Decadence of Bengali Intelligentsia ...
25 Apr 2009 ... As the general election campaign is coming to a close, there are increasing signs that the Bengali intellectual life is at a crossroad, ...
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oral history project, which chronicles the experiences of major Bengali intellectuals. (some of international renown such as Amartya Sen, Gayatri Spivak and ...
www.library.tufts.edu/Tisch/berger/2009/BergerGrant2009App.pdf Pakistan must ask for forgiveness to Bangladesh | Facebook
On December 14, 1971, the Pakistan army unleased the paramilitary units al-Badr and al-Shams to exterminate Bengali intellectuals. ...
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26/11 terror attack: Verdict tomorrow
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Delhi Commonwealth Games could be "attractive" terror target: Sheila Dikshit
Delhi Chief Minster Sheila Dikshit on Sunday said that the Government is not going to leave any stone unturned as the upcoming Delhi Commonwealth Games could be an attractive targets for terrorists.Interacting with media, Dikshit also asked people of the National Capital Region (NCR) not to get panicked over the advisory issued on possible terror threats.
"I will tell you that Commonwealth Games would be an attractive target for them (terrorists). The aim of terrorists is to destabilise the country and show that the government cannot hold the Commonwealth games, Dikshit said.
Dikshit blamed that terror elements always tried to destabilise the country but the Government will over come the challenge thrown by them.
"Nobody's life will come to a standstill. And certainly no panic should be there. Of course the police, the Home Ministry and Lt Governor are doing their best and they are doing their work," Dikshit said.
Dikshit's comments came in the backdrop of US, UK and Australia warning about "imminent terror attacks" on Delhi's busy public and market places.
Commenting whether people should remain indoors, Delhi Lt Governor Tejindar Khanna said people should come out of fear psychosis.
"Nobody is saying that people should stay at home. Because that would be, I think, just acting out of fear psychosis," Khanna said.
On Saturday, the US, UK and Australia have issued advisories, warning of imminent terror attacks in the capital, particularly in market places like Connaught Place, Greater Kailash and Chandni Chowk.
During last two days Delhi remained under a thick security blanket with Delhi Police deploying personnel on streets and crowded commercial and market centres.London, May 2 (ANI): The discovery of a skeleton in a friary's ruins is the first physical evidence of a black person living in medieval Britain.
The man's skeleton, uncovered in the friary in Ipswich, Suffolk, which was destroyed by Henry VIII, is said to date back to the 13th century, reports The Times.
The discovery is the first physical indication that black people lived in Britain in the 1,000-year period between the departure of the Romans, who had African slaves, and the beginnings of the age of discovery in the 15th century.
The skull demonstrates African characteristics, and an isotopic analysis of the man's teeth and thigh bone proved he had African roots.
The man is believed to have been captured by a noble who brought him back to Britain from one of the last crusades in the 1270s.
His burial on consecrated ground suggests either he was a Christian or had converted.
The man predates the three black people previously known to have lived in Britain by 150 years. (ANI)
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Delhi on guard after terror alert from USHindustan Times - 53 minutes ago Terrorists will try to destabilise the country and stop the holding of Commonwealth Games in Delhi, which has become an "attractive" target for them but there is no need to panic, Delhi Chief Minister Sheila Dikshit said on Sunday. Video: US advisory warns of 'imminent' Delhi attack, police on alert NDTV.com Danger in Indian bazaars The Australian Kasab fate to be sealed todayDeccan Herald - 23 minutes ago Seventeen months after the terror mayhem in India's financial and entertainment capital, comes the moment the entire nation has waited for. 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User:Sze cavalry01/Invasion of India by Scythian Tribes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and India as well as far off as Rome in the west.
But these important historical events are viewed through a fog of misconceptions that scholars are only beginning to clear up.
One of these relates to the true identity of the Scythian peoples who participated in the invasion. Many historians now believe that the Scythian group that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included not only the Sakas but other allied tribes, such as the Parama Kambojas, Bahlikas, Rishikas and Paradas. This new view is based on readings of ancient inscriptions as well as literary evidence from scholars in the region and further afar. It suggests that India's modern population is descended from a far greater range of Central Asian peoples than previously thought.
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[edit] Movements among Central Asian tribes
In the second century BCE, a fresh nomadic movement started among the Central Asian tribes, producing lasting effects on the history of Rome in Europe and Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and India in the east. Recorded in the annals of the Han dynasty and other Chinese records, this great tribal movement began after the Yue-chi Chinese tribe fled westwards after their defeat by the neighbouring Hiung-nu, creating a domino effect as the Yue-chi displaced other central Asian tribes in their path.
According to these ancient sources Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of Mongolia attacked the Yue-chi and evicted them from their homeland Kansu (Nan-shan).[1] Leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved westwards, and following the route north of Takla Makan, entered the lands of the Haumavarka Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake through the passes of Tien-shan. Unable to withstand the assault, the Haumavarka Sakas allowed the Yue-chi to settle in their lands. In the years to come, the Haumavarka Sakas (Sakas of Wu-sun?) sought the help of the Hsiung-nu people and evicted the Yue-chi.
Even so, the initial clash with the invading Yue-chi caused a large group of the Haumavarka Shakas to leave their ancestral home. These Sakas journeyed through Tashkent and Ferghana (Sogdiana) (inhabited by the Sugud or Shulik tribe of the Iranians) and occupied the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes, also overunning the Greek kingdom of Bactria, occupying most of its western parts.[2]. Others suggest Tukhara (India and Central Asia, 1955, p 125, Dr P. C. Bagch). Dr D. C. Sircar reconciles the difference by suggesting that Ta-hia referred to Tukhara and the eastern parts of Bactria.[3].
After being defeated and evicted by the joint forces of the Wu-sun and Hsiung-nu people, the Ta Yue-chis also moved southwards, overrunning in their path the Rishikas, Parama-Kambojas, Lohas and other allied Scythian clans living in the Transoxian regions as far Fargana. Many fled in a southwesterly direction and joined the Haumavarka Sakas in Bactria. The Yue-chi followed behind. Once again under extreme pressure, the Sakas and other allied Scythian groups including the Kambojas were forced to leave Bactria.
They first tried to enter India via the Kabol valley but were vigorously opposed by the Greek powers there. Rebuffed, the clans turned westwards to Herat and then took a southerly direction, reaching Helmund valley (Sigal) in south-west Afghanistan, the region later called Sakasthan or Seistan. Scholars believe that this Scythian migration through Herat to Drangiana was accompanied by groups of Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas), Rishikas and other allied tribes from Transoxiana that were also displaced by the Yue-chi. [4] [5].
[edit] Scythians and Sakas in classical sources
Modern historical accounts of the Indo-Scythian wars often assume that the Scythian protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (Sakai or Sakas). But earlier Greek and Latin texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread grouping of Central Asian peoples.
To Herodotus (484-425 BCE), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. Scythians from Ammyurgia).[6] Strabo (Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, 63 BCE-c24 AD) suggests that the term Skuthais (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other tribes.[7] Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' , c92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (a Scythian people) or the Skuthai (the Scythians) who inhabit Asia.[8]
It is clear that the Greek and Latin scholars cited here believed, all Sakai were Scythians, but not all Scythians were Sakai.[9] It seems likely that modern confusion about the identity of the Scythians is partly due to the Persians. According to Herodotus, the Persians called all Scythians by the name Sakas.[10] Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23–79 AD) provides a more detailed explanation, stating that the Persians gave the name Sakai to the Scythian tribes: "nearest to them".[11] This likely explains why the Scythians began to be called Sakai.
[edit] Classical descriptions of the Scythian regions
Another clue to the true identity of the Scythians is the widespread area in which classical scholars thought they lived. The ancient Greeks wrote that the homelands of the Scythian peoples included Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, north of Hindukush/Karakoram and west of China extending as far as Siberia. This suggests Scythia was a generic term that was loosely applied to a vast area of Central Asia spanning numerous groups and diverse ethnicities.
Strabo defined all the Central Asian clans inhabiting the area east of the Caspian Sea as Scythian in culture.[12] Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus, c90–30 BCE) said that Mt Hemodos was the dividing line between Scythia and India,[13] ancient Greek sources used a variety of names for this mountain, including Himaos, Imaos and Paropamisos but generally place it in the Himalayas.[14]
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus, c90-168 AD) writes that Skuthia was not only "within the Imaos" (the Himalayas) and "beyond the Imaos" (north of the Himalayas), but also speaks of a separate "land of the Sakais" within Scythia [15]. Both Solinus and Pliny report that the Ganges was one of the greatest rivers of India and has its source in the Scythian mountains [16].
When ancient texts refer to the Sakai living in the Mt. Hemodos area or the Himalayan region, they are also talking about a much wider area than the modern Himalayas. Greek texts refer to Mt. Hemodos as Kaukasos, the Caucasus, which is the Greek word for the entire Hindukush region.[17] In the ancient Sanskrit/Pali texts, the Himalayas spanned the eastern and western oceans and so included the Hindukush and Karakoram ranges.[18]
Ptolemy meanwhile says that the Scythian tribes living in the Hindukush ranges were only at the southern fringe of the Scythian world. By this definition, the Parama Kambojas tribe who lived in the far off Transoxiana territory as distant as the Fargana and Zeravshan valleys were also Scythians.
With Scythia covering such a wide area, it is no wonder classical scholars like Strabo and the Historiae Philippcae writings of 1st century BC Roman historian Pompeius Trogus (Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus), classified any Asio/Asii or Asiani and Kambojan clans connected with horse culture as Scythic races.
[edit] Where did the Sakas live?
The Sakas had at least three major settlements, Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya, according to inscriptions left by King Achaemenid Darius I (522-486 BCE) in the city of Hamadan and his royal seat of Perspolis. [19] However, scholars think these three settlements may be merely remnants of a much greater civilization left by the waves of Scythian migrations back to the middle of the 8th century BCE.[20]
The Darian inscriptions say that the Sakas Haumavarka lived 'beyond Sogdiana' (para-Sugudam) which when seen from Perspolis, seems to point to Tashkant, Fargana, Kashgar and nearby regions.[21] The Sakas Tigrakhauda lived near the Arals in the lower valleys of the Jaxartes as well as the plains north of the Jaxartes. The third Sakas settlement,Sakas Taradarya, was located north of the Black Sea in the Russian Steppes.[22]
There are also references to the Saka Haumavarka in ancient Indian texts. It seems likely that it was these Sakas Haumavarka and other allied tribes such as the Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc that lived in, and north of the Pamir mountains as far as Kashgar, Fargana and Issyk-kul Lake, that entered into conflict with the Ta Yue-chi or Great Yue-chi and migrated into northern India. [23] According to the evidence furnished by Mahabharata, the Transoxian Pamir mountains and regions to the north as far as Fargana were known as the lands of the allied Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc tribes [24]. All these peoples living in the Scythia of the classical writers or the Shakadvipa of Indian texts, were lumped together and given the general name Sacae by Greeks and Sakas by the Iranians. They were known as Shakas in Indian texts [25].
[edit] Parama Kambojas were Scythians
According to scholars, term Kamboja may be explained as Kam+boja. Boja is the Iranian equivalent of the Sanskrit Bhoja which means Lord or King or Master [26]. Thus, Kambojas may be explained as Lords or Masters or Rulers of Kam country.
The root Kam implying place or region is reflected in the Kama valley, a region lying between the Khyber Pass and Jalalabad. It is also reflected in the place names Kama-daka, Kamma-Shilman, Kama-bela of Kabol; in the Kamdesh or Kambrom, Kamich, Kama and Kamu & Kamatol of the Kunar and Bashgul valleys. It is further reflected in the vast expanses of the region called Kazal-kam and Kara-kam lying on either side of the Oxus north of Hindukush in parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. There is also a river named Kama in the Russian Steppes. Kambah is also said to be name of an ancient town some destinations north-west of Samarkhand in Uzbekistan[27].
The Ptolemian term Kamoi also refers to a people of the region falling in the Oxus/Jaxartes doab. According to Dr Seth, it seems highly likely that the ancient Kambojas had their habitats in the doab of the river Vamksu (Oxus) and Syr (Jaxartes) (ancient Suguda) and beyond in the hilly regions of Syr. The territory is watered by numerous tributaries of the Oxus and Jaxartes and was referred to as Komdei by Ptolemy. Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (325 AD‑330 AD) labelled the mountainous region of Suguda as Komedas [28].
These names seem to point towards 'Komdesh' (Kambojdesh ?) which was the original home of the Kambojas [29]. Ptolemy has also stated that there is a tribe variously called Komroi, Komedei or Komoi which occupies the plateaus of Bactria, Suguda and Sakai countries [30].
Al-Maqidisi in his book Al-Muqhni calls the people of this territory Kumiji a name that apparently points to the Sanskrit Kamboja. The Komdei of Ptolemy has been identified with the Kiumito of Hiun Tsang [31]. Scholars have identified this Kiumito as the habitat of Iranian Kambojas [32]. The Kumuda-dvipa of the Puranas is said to lie to north of Pamirs in the Tartary region and is equivalent to the Komdei of Ptolemy and the Kumadas of Ammianus Marcellinus.
The fifth century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa attests that the Hunas and Kambojas lived as neighbors in their respective west and east Oxus valleys [33]. Rajatarangini of Kalhana also refers to Tukharas and Kambojas living respectively in the west and east Oxus valleys, during the 8th century AD[34].
Scholars believe that the Kiumito of Hiun Tsang is same as the Kamboja of Raghuvamsa and of Rajatarangini and represents the Iranian section of the Kambojas [35]. The Kumuda or Kumuda-dvipa of Indian texts and the Komdei of Ptolemy lay in the Shaka-dvipa per Mahabharata and Puranic texts [36]. Komdei apparently refers to the region which has been called Parama Kamboja in Mahabharata [37]. This was the region where the Rishikas, Parama Kambojas, Lohas and other allied people dwelt.
Needless to say that all these people including the Parama Kambojas were Scythians by culture for obvious reasons. Writing on the Rishikas, Dr V. S. Aggarwala observes: "The name Rishika occurs in Mahabharata as a part of 'Shakadvipa'. Arjuna had conquered Rishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) which flowed through the Shaka country." As the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were all neighborly tribes and were allied in their fight against Arjuna [38], this strongly suggests that the Transoxian Lohas and Parama Kambojas were also located in Shakadvipa or Scythia.
Dr Bailey lists several breeds of Kamboja horses and states that their haya- and javana- breeds ( 'swift horse') refer to the famous horses of the Farghana breed [39]. Praja Bhata, a Kashmiri Sanskrit poet and author of the fourth Rajatarangini while writing about the history of Moghul dynasty in India, addresses emperor Babur as a Yavana king hailing from Kambhoja [40]. Since Vabur (Babur) was native of Fargana (in Kyrgyzstan of Central Asia), this Indian reference seems to extend the Kamboja i.e the Parama Kamboja domain almost as far as to Fargana.
Thus the foregoing discussion sufficiently proves that the territory of the Parama Kambojas lay in a region beyond Imaos or Himalaya/Hindukush, the region that ancient Sanskrit texts such as Mahabharata labelled Shakadvipa and classical writers Strabo and Diodorus define as part of Scythia (see above). This allows the conclusion that the Parama Kambojas, the Rishikas and Lohas were Scythians [41].
"It seems from some inscriptions that the Kambojas were a royal clan of the Sakas better known under the Greek name of Scyths" [42].
[edit] Shaka, Kamboja references in ancient texts
[edit] Mahabharata references
Udyoga Parva of Mahabharata groups the Shakas, Pahlavas, Paradas with the ''Kamboja-rishikas'' and attests them as living on sea-shore in western India[43]. Again Udyoga Parava of Mahabharata lists the Shakas, Kambojas and the Khashas together and calls them as tribes of Udichya or Uttarapatha[44]. The Shanti Parva of Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Gandharas, Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all as the Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha [45]. More importantly, the Shaka army had joined the Kamboja army and together they had participated in the Kurukshetra war under single and supreme command of Sudakshina Kamboja [46].
[edit] Ramayana references
Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 43 of Valmiki Ramayana collocates the Kambojas with the Shakas, Yavanas, Paradas and the Uttarakurus in the extreme northwest. The Yavanas are in (Bactria) and Kambojas in Tajikstan, the Paradas are on river Sailoda in Sinkiang province of China. The Uttarakurus lie beyond the Pamirs. The Shakas of the Ramayana obviously refer to the Shakas of Issyk-kul Lake lying beyond Suguda [47]. Adi-Kanda of the Ramayana [48], tells us that the Kambojas, Shakas, Pahlavas and some other allied tribes from northwest were 'created' at the request of sage Vasishta by the Divine cow Shavala to defend Vasishta sage from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law). All these Ramayanic references seem to closely connect the Kambojas and the Shakas together.
[edit] Puranic references
Harivamsa Purana [49] and other Puranic literature [50] attest that Iksvaku king Bahu of Ayodhya was driven out of his dominions by Haihayas and Talajanghas with the assistance of Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas Ayudhajivin Kshatriyas from Uttarapatha, popularly known as "five hordes" (ganah pāñca) [51].
Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war between Brahmanical king Kalika (supposed to be Pusyamitra Sunga) and Buddhist king Kali (supposed to be Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180 BCE)) and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas, etc together as a powerful military allies of king Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarians take the orders from their women [52].
The Bhuvanakosha section of Puranic texts also lists the Kambojas with the Shakas, Paradas, Yavanas, Bahlikas, Sindhus, Soviras, Madrakas, Kekayas etc and place then all in the Udychya or northwest division.
[edit] Manusmiriti reference
Manusmriti places the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Paradas and labels them all as degraded Kshatriyas defying the Brahmanical codes and rituals [53].
Mahabharata, too similarly groups the Shakas with the Kambojas and Yavanas and states that they were originally noble Kshatriyas but got degraded to to vrishala status on account of their non-obersvance of the sacred Brahmanical codes[54].
[edit] Atri-Smriti reference
In his Book of Law (Atri-Smriti or Atri-Samhita), Rsi Atri regards the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Khasas, Parasikas, Natas, Svapakas etc all as Mlechchas and forbids receiving any gifts from or eating the food of or having any kinds of contacts or connections with these people [55].
[edit] Mudrarakshas reference
The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta and the Jaina works Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the north western martial tribes including the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc [56].
[edit] Other references
In the Brihat Katha of Pt. Kshmendra, Vedic king Vikramaditya had fought with the joint mlechcha forces of the Shakas, Kambojas, Hunas, Sabaras, Tusharas, Parasikas and had destroyed them completely[57].
The Vartika of the Katyayana on Panini's Ashtadhyayi informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas may similarly be addressed by their respective tribal names.[58]
There are numerous more similar references in ancient Sanskrit literature where the Kambojas and Shakas are listed together. All these references amply prove that the Shakas were closely allied to the Kambojas and both were living as close neighbors in the extreme of northwest division of ancient India.
[edit] Strabo's evidence
According to Greek chronicler Strabo [59], Bactriana was taken by nomads like Asii/Asio, Pasianoi, Tokhario and Sakarauloi who had originally come from country from other side of Jaxartes (Central Asia) [60]. The prologus XLI of Historiae Philippcae also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of Bactria and Sogdiana---the invaders are described as Saraucae and Asiani [61]. The Saraucae are Sacarauli and Asiani are Asii or Asio of Strabo [62]. These references conceal the information that after being turned out from Issyk-kul lake and in their movements to Bactria via Sogdiana and Fargana, under pressure from Ta Yue-chih, the Issyk-kul Sakas (Sakaraulois) had been joined on the way by sections of other Scythian tribes of the intervening regions during their southerly or south-westerly movements to Bactria. The term Asio (or Asii) obviously refers to horse People [63]and undoubtedly refers to the Kambojas of the Parama Kamboja domain whose Aswas or horses too have been glorified by Mahabharata [64] as being of excellent quality. In fact, Asio, Asi/Asii, Asva/Aswa, Ari-aspi, Aspasios, Aspasii (or Hippasii) are variant names the Classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the Kambojas of Scythian domain [65] [66] [67]. The Tokharios are assumed by some scholars to be Rishikas. But the Rishikas were a closely affiliated to the Parama-Kambojas as per Mahabharata evidence [68]. Similarly, the Pasianois were another Scythian tribe from Central Asia. Saraucae or Sakarauloi obviously refers to the Saka proper from Issyk-kul Lake. Some scholars tend to link the Rishikas with Tukharas and later with the Ta Yue-chis themselves. If one accepts this connection, then the Tukharas (==> Rishikas ==> Yue-chihs) had controlled the eastern parts of Bactria country (Ta-hia) while the combined forces of the Sakarauloi, 'Asio' (horse people = Parama Kambojas) and the 'Pasinoi' of Strabo etc had occupied its western parts after being displaced from the original home in Fargana/Alai valley by the Ta-Yuechis. As stated earlier, Ta-hia is taken to mean Tukhara/Tokhara which also included Badakshan, Chitral, Kafirstan and Wakhan which are said to have formed eastern parts of Bactria [69] [70] [71] [72] According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria [73].
[edit] Sai-Wang Scythian hordes in Chi-pin or Ki-pin
A section of the Central Asian Scythians (under Sai-Wang) is said to have taken southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs it entered the Chi-pin or Ki-pin after crossing the Hasuna-tu (Hanging Pass) located above the valley of Kanda in Swat country [74]. Chipin has been identified by Dr Pelliot, Dr Bagchi, Dr Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir [75] but most other scholars identify it with Kapisha (Kafirstan) [76] [77]. The Sai-Wang had established his kingdom in Ki-pin. Dr S. Konow interprets the Sai-Wang as Saka Murunda of Indian literature, Murunda being equal to Wang i.e king, master or lord[78], but prof Bagchi who takes the word Wang in the sense of the king of the Scythians but he distinguishes the Sai Sakas from the Murunda Sakas [79]. There are reasons to believe that Sai Scythians were Kamboja Scythians and therefore Sai-Wang belonged to the Scythianised Kambojas (i.e. Parama-Kambojas) of the Transoxiana region and came back to settle among his own stock after being evicted from his ancestral land located in Scythia or Shakadvipa. King Moga or Maues could have belonged to this group of Scythians who had migrated from the Sai country (Central Asia) to Chipin [80]. The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that the members of the family of king Moga (q.v.) had last name Kamuia or Kamuio (q.v) which Khroshthi term has been identified by scholars with Sanskrit Kamboja or Kambojaka [81]. Thus, Sai-Wang and his migrant hordes which came to settle in Kabol valley in Kapisha may indeed have been from the transoxian Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa or Scythian land [82].
[edit] Mixed hordes in Drangian/Zrangiana
Arsacid emperor Mithridates II ( c 123-88/87 BCE) had scored many successes against the Scythians and added many provinces to Parthian empire [83]. It is pointed out that the Bactrian Scythain hordes were also conquered by him. A section of these people had moved from Bactria to Lake Helmond in the wake of Yue-chi pressure and had settled about Drangiana/Zrangiana (Sigal) which region later came to be called 'Sakastana of the Skythian (Scythian) Sakai' by the time of compositions Isodor of Charax, [84], towards the end of first century BCE [85]. The region is still known as Seistan.
Scholars hold that Sakistan or Seistan of Drangiana was not only the habitat of the Saka alone but it also contained population of the Pahlavas and the Kambojas etc who have all been lumped together and labelled as Sakas [86]. On the same lines, there were numerous Sakas settled in Afghanistan but the Rock Edicts of king Ashoka only refer to the Yavanas, Kambojas and the Gandharas but no mention is made of the Sakas. Thus, whatever Saka population was living in Afghanistan, it has been included and counted among the Kambojas[87]. Cf: "The word Kamboja in early Indian literature and in king Asoka's inscriptions included the Sakas of Sakasthan as well. Sudakshina's army in Mahabharata war included the Yavanas and the Sakas contigents" [88]. Similarly, numerous Sakas had settled in Mathura around the start of Christian era and the city was also their capital or political headquarters. But Mahabharata verses composed around this time only attest to theKambojas and Yavanas as the inhabitants of Mathura but do not make any mention of the Sakas [89]. Obviously, the Indian epic has included the Sakas of Mathura among the Kambojas or the Yavanas here (Dr J. L. Kamboj). In fact, the term Yavana had become a common designation for the Barbarians or Mlechchas and was commonly used for all aliens or foreigners [90] irrespective of whether they were Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas or the Sakas. The Sakastana or Sakasthana which originally denoted area commonly known as Seistan but with the movement of the Sakas in westerly direction, the Sakasthana according to the author of Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions, seems to have included the entire region comprising Kamboja, Naulibi, Nagar and Taxila also [91].
The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India saliantly contains a mixture of Saka, Parthian and Iranian elements [92]. The Iranian elements here obviously implies the Iranian Kambojas. Dr Thomas also observes that the Epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature [93].
Dr Thomas further notes: " It would seem probable that the tribes from eastern Iran who invaded India included diverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that, it is not possible to assert that one dynasty was Parthian while another was Saka etc [94].
"The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India shows an admixture of Scythian, Parthian and Iranian elements. .... " [95].
Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities.
Numerous scholars believe that during centuries immediately preceding Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas etc.... such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical [96] [97] [98]. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc [99]. This extensive social and cultural admixture due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among the various frontier peoples of north-west. While living and ruling over middle and lower Indus valley--Drangiana and Archosia (Kandhahar region) -- the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kambojas were closely associated and no wonder it is sometimes impossible to distinguish as to which ruler belongs to which clan[100] Cf: "Towards the end of second c BCE, Arachosia and Drangiana were occupied by Scythian tribes who gave their name to latter region (Sakastana - Seistan). The Parthian-Saka-Yavana-Indian-Kushana history of south eastern parts of this former Achaemenid Empire is one of the most disputed subjects among the scholars of ancient history and have to be put to one side"[101].
In view of the foregoing discussion, it is thus quite safe to conclude that the Drangiana country and its surrounding area commonly called Sakasthana had become common habitat for the migrants from Saka, Pahlava, Kamboja and some other clans etc[102].
[edit] Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India
The mixed Scythian hordes that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding regions, later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus valley. Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern India, including kingdoms in the Indian mainland.
There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also[103].
Leading Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury, Dr B. C. Law, Dr Satya Shrava and others see in these verses the clear glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc from north-west.[104] The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE.[105] This picture presented by the Ramayana probably refers to the political scenario that emerged when the mixed hordes descended from Sakasthan and advanced into the lower Indus valley via Bolan Pass and beyond into the Indian mainland. It refers to the hordes' struggle to seize political control of Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Malwa, Maharashtra and further areas of eastern, central and southern India.
Mahabharata too furnishes a veiled hint about the invasion of the mixed hordes from the northwest. Vanaparava by Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc shall rule the earth (i.e India) un-rightously in Kaliyuga..." [106] [107].
According to scholars like Edward Washburn Hopkins, H. C. Ray Chaudhury etc, this is too clear a statement to be ignored or explained away [108]. In fact, when this statement was written, the people mentioned above had already ruled India. If this were the only place where the names occured, it might be regarded as a part of an interpolation in mass. But the people described here as foreign invaders are all mentioned repeatedly as barbarians and fierce warriors from the west. The Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas are portrayed as famous fighters [109] wearing especially fine metal armors, expert cavalrymen [110] and their overthrow is alluded to [111]. So also the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata [112] stigmatises the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras as the sinners (un-rightous people) who are said to be wandering on this earth from the time of Treta age having customs similar to those of chandalas and wild animals [113].
The above Vana Parava prophetic reference from Mahabharata epic apparently alludes to the chaotic politics which followed the collapse of the Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India ((second/first century BC downwards) ) and the area's subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Saka, Yavana, Kamboja, Pahlavas, Bahlika, Shudra and Rishika tribes from the northwest [114].
That the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc indeed became rulers and masters of the earth (Aryan India) in Kaliyuga (post Mauryan era) is also attested from the Kalki Purana where a short dialogue between the Dharma and the Kalki [115] [116], woefully deplores the forced occupation of the earth (Indian mainland) by the unrighteous rulers of the Kambojas, Sakas, Savaras, Mlecchas, Barbaras etc who are blamed to have spread adharma and chaos all around [117].
This chaotic situation of Aryan India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (c. 60 BC) and the establishment of the Vikrama era [118] [119] [120] [121] [122].
See also: Migration of Kambojas
[edit] Kambojas-Sakas in control of Mathura
The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that Mathura fell under the control of the Sakas and the Kambojas. The inscriptions contain references to Kharaosta Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the son of Arta as is attested by his own coins [123]. Arta is stated to be brother of king Moga or Maues [124]. Princess Aiyasi Kamuia was the chief queen of Shaka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars. Dr Konow has also identified Kamuia or Kamuio of the Mathura Lion capital with Sanskrit Kamboja or Pali Kamobjika. See main article: Kamuia.
This shows that Sakas and Kambojas had jointly ruled over Mathura/Uttara Pradesh. As stated before, the Mahabharata verses, composed around the beginning of Christian era, strongly attest that the Kambojas and Yavanas were in control of Mathura country:
tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye.|ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah || [125].Dr Jayaswal writes: "Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting"[126].
Dr Buddha Prakash observes: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered Indian mainland and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5)....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions of Saka Satrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura "[127].
Prof Shashi Asthana comments: "Epic Mahabharata refers to the siege of Mathura by the Yavanas and Kambojas" [128] [129].
According to Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona: "Mahabharata reference mentions the Yavanas-Kambojas as settled in the outlying parts of Mathura city" [130] [131].
The term Kamboja in the above verses of Mahabharata seems to include both the Kambojas and Sakas.
[edit] Kamboja principalities in West/Southwest India
The Kamboja hordes of the second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western India. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh [132] remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The Kamboi (ancient town/port) in Patan district, Khambhoj in district Anand, Kambay (port/town and Gulf) ... all in Saurashtra; Kumbhoj/Kambhoj (an ancient town) in Kolhapur in Maharashtra; and the Coimbatore city of Tamil Nadu in southern India carry unmistakable footprints of the Kambojas. There is also an ancient Kambhoj caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra (See links: [2] , [3] ) [133] which could be a dwindling remnant of the ancient Kambojas settled in South-west India.
As noted below, there are numerous ancient Sanskrit references which profusely affirm that the Kambojas had indeed been in occupation of territories in south-western and southern India, in the post-Christian times.
Jyotirvidhbhrana, a Sanskrit Treatise on Astrology is generally attributed to Kalidasa in its last Stenzas, (but probably, it was authored by someone of Jaina persuasion around 7th century). In chapter 22, verse 14, the author writes: 'He (Sahasanka) destroyed the pride of Dravidas, also the king of Lata, defeated the king of Gauda and conquered Gurjardesa, king of Dhara (westerm Malwa) and king of Kambojas and conducted him with success' [134]. In chapter 20, verse 46 of Jyotirvidhbhrana, the author states: 'The people of Kamboja, Gauda, Andhraka, Malava, Surajya and Gurjaras, even to this day sing the glory of Sahasanka (alias Vikarmaditya alias Chandra Gupta II), showing with the liberality of gifts of gold' [135]. These references seem to imply that once Vikarmaditya had conquered Lata, Dhara (western Malwa), Saurashtra, Gujaradesa and as well as vanquished the Sakas, Kambojas, Gurjaras intruders of Gujarat/Saurashtra/Malawa from northwest, these aliens had become his subjects for sometime and started paying tributes to the great Gupta king Vikarmaditya (Chandra Gupta II) for his great benevolent rule—---hence this Jyotirvidbhrana tradition. From this reference, it also becomes understandable that once these foreign warlike intruders had been subjugated, many of them must have joined the armed forces of the Gupta rulers in large numbers and some of them like General Bhattarka, founder of Maitraka dynasty of Gujerat, had obtained placements in key positions. This Jyotirvidhbhrana reference definitely locates the Kambojas in south-western India i.e. near Lata, Saurashtra and western Malwa somewhere.
Markendeya Purana [136] lists the Kambojas and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) among the countries of Udichya division i.e Uttarapatha, but another chapter of the same Markendeya Purana also refers to other settlements of the Kambojas and Pahlavas and locates them in the south-west of India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (north Saurashtra) countries [137] [138] [139] [140] [141].
Geographical list of Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (6th century CE) specifically places the Kambojas with the Pahlavas in the south-west division (nairrtyam dizi = southwest direction), Sind, Saurashtra/Kathiawar, contiguous to Malwa and Dravida countries [142] [143] [144] [145] [146].
Similarily, in his list of countries, Alberuni (973 AD --1048 AD) also assigns the Kamboja kingdom in the south-west (Nairita) quadrant of India [147].
Arthashastra of Barhaspatya [148] refers to the Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to the Dasrana country (eastern Malwa), east of Gujarat [149]. Distance between Kamboja and Dasarna country is stated to be 80 Yojna [150].
Vishnudharmottara Purana [151] also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India [152].
Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of south-west India [153].
Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in India itself...(1) Kambhoja in south-west India and (2) Kamboja in southern parts of India [154].
The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) [155].
But like Agni Purana, some recensions of Garuda Purana mention two Kamboja settlements within India proper. ...one in south-west India and the second in southern India [156].
The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India [157].
The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c CE).
Due to the above cited literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Aiyangar, Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat [158]. Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.
According to History of Ceylon, 'the Kambojas who inhabited a region bordering upper Indus, had, at one time, established themselves in a country near Sind....It was from this people that a section had migrated to Ceylone and settled in the island during pre-Christian times' [159] According to Fergusson: "The Cambojas seem to have been a people inhabiting the country between Candahar and Cabul, who when the nomadic tide was setting eastwards, joined the crowd, and sought settlements in the more fertile countries within the Indus ( or Sind)" [160]
Biography of Shankara Acharya based on his religious itineraries refers to Kambhoja located in Saurashtra comprising Girnar, Somnath, Prabhasa and other regions and a Kamboja located in Central Asia adjacent to Daradistan but lying north of Kashmir. This eighth-century reference clearly attests two Kamboja settlements, one of which specifically fixed in Saurashtra [4] [161].
Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is highly popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with the militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventurous Kambojan king. The tale probably relates to a historical brush between the Andhraites and the intruding Kamboja/Pahlavas hordes in the Christian era.
Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity [162].
[edit] Evidence about joint invasions
The clans of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Paradas, etc had been invading India from Central Asia many years before the Christian era. These peoples were all absorbed into the community of Kshatriyas of mainstream Indian society [163].
The Bahlikas were originally people of Balkh or Bactria. Before the arrival of the Greeks, Bactria and nearby regions were inhabitated by the Uttaramadras and Uttarakurus. A later settlement of Bahlikas was also said to exist in south-west India in the neighborhood of Gujarat and Maharashtra. This is evident in some verses of Ramayana [164] as well as the Padama Purana [165]. These ancient references demonstrate that the Bahlikas had also migrated into south-western India as neighbors of the Saurashtra and the Abhira peoples. According to the Puranas, a branch of the Bahlikas had ruled in Vindhyas [166]. The Baraca of the Periplus (first century AD) has been identified with the Bahlika [167].
The Shakas were formerly a people of trans-Hemodos region---the Shakadvipa of the Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Isidor of Charax (beginning of first c AD) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). First century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c AD 70-80) also attests a Scythian district in lower Indus with Minnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c AD 140) also attests Indo-Scythia in south-western India which comprised Patalene, Abhira and the Surastrene (Saurashtra) territories.
The Paradas anciently inhabited the mountainous region between the upper courses of Oxus and Jaxartes. Puranas attest their location on the banks of river Chaksu (Oxus) [168]. Mahabharata too lists them among the tribes of northwest and place them on river Sailoda [169]. But Geographer Ptolemy notes them as Pardane and attests them as living in western India in Sindhu or Gedrosia during second century CE.
The Kambojas and Pahlavas are originally attested to have been living in east Iranian regions in Central Asia. But, later evidence testifies that this people had also established some of their settlements in South-west/Southern India in post-Christian times. See Migration of Kambojas: [5]
The Rishikas were formerly attested as living in Sakadvipa as neighbors to the Parama-Kambojas of Transoxiana region which branch of theirs is known as Uttara Rishikas[170]. But later evidence locates one of their section living as neighbors to the Asmakas and Vidarbhas in south-west India. In the Udyyoga Parva of Mahabharata, the Pahlavas, Shakas, Paradas, Kambojas and Rishikas are listed together and are placed in the west near the sea shore [171]. This Rishika settlement lied between Godavari and Tapti rivers, east of Nasika, north of Mulaka and west of Vidarbha in what is called Khandes. Dr Sylvain Lévi had shown on strong grounds that the Yuezhi existed in the Deccan between 25 and 130 BCE, and now Lévi's claim has been supported by numerous literary sources such as the Ramayana [172], epic Mahabharata [173], Kasika[174], the Mahabhasya of Patanjali[175], Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira [176], Markandeya Purana [177] and Matsya Purana[178] etc., as well as the epigraphic evidence from the Nasik Cave Inscriptions of Queen Balasri which mentions the Risikas (Asikas) as a component of Gautamiputra Satkaranai's empire [179] and strongly endorses the earlier migration of Risikas/Asikas (Asii or Yuezhi) in the Deccan also. The Kambojas are also abundantly attested to have migrated and settled in south-west and southern division of India.
Barbaras were originally attested to have been living in extreme northewest on the banks of river Sita [180] apparently as neighbors to the Parama Kambojas. Puranas also attests that river Chaksu (Oxus) flowed through the janapada of the Barabaras [181]. In Mahabharata, Barbaras are mentioned with the Kambojas, Gandharas, Yavanas and the Kiratas--- all being placed in the Uttarapatha [182]. But in later verses of Mahabharata, the Barbaras, Pahlavas, Yavanas, Sakas etc have also been placed near the sea [183]. According to the author of Periplus, river Sinthos (Sindhu) had seven mouths and all were shallow and unnavigable except the middle one on which was located Barbaricum, a trading seaport. Behind this tradeport was located minnagra, the capital of Skythia[184].
The facts presented above show that the second century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability carried out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other allied tribes from the northwest [185]. As a result, groups of these people who had originally lived in the northwest before the Christian era, were also found to have lived in southwest India in post-Christian times. All these groups of north-western peoples apparently entered Indian mainland following the so-called Scythian Invasion of India.
[edit] References
- ^ Ma-Twan-Lin's Chinese Encyclopedia of the 13th century AD states: "In ancient times, the Hiung-nu having defeated the Yue-chi, the latter went to the west and dwelt among the Ta-hia and the king of Sai went to southwards to live in Kipin. The tribes of Sai divided and dispersed so as to form here and there different kingdoms." Shin-chi, Chapter 123; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 691; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 122.
- ^ Ch'ien Han-Shu's History of the first Han Dynasty says: "Formerly when the Hiung-nu conquered the Ta Yue-chi (Great Yue-chi), the latter migrated to the west and subjugated the Ta-hia whereupon the Sai-Wang went to South and ruled over Kipin" (Ch'ien Han-shu, Chapter 96A). The territory of the Wu-sun was originally the country of the Sai (Ch'ien Han-shu, Chapter 96B). The name of the Sai-Wang ruler is not given. Some scholars identify the Ta-hia in these records as Bactria (Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 511, E. J. Rapson (Ed)).
- ^ The Age of Imperial Unity, History and Culture of Indian People, p122, (Ed.) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
- ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 296-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ The joint resistance of the Saka, Kamboja Parama-Kamboja), Rishika, Loha, Parada and Bahlikas tribes to the Yue-chi and migration south-west together reflected the strong ties between the neighbouring tribes since remote antiquity. Early Indian literature records military alliances between the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas. The ancient Puranic traditions mentions several joint invasions of India by the Scythians. The conflict between the Bahu-Sagara of India and the Haihaya-Kamboja-Saka-Pahlava-Yavana-Parada is well known as the war fought by "five hordes" (pāňca-ganha). The Sakas, Yavanas, Tusharas and Kambojas also fought the Kurukshetra war under the command of Sudakshina Kamboja. The Valmiki Ramayana also attests that the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Yavanas fought together against the Vedic, Hindu king Vishwamitra of Kanauj.
- ^ History, VII, 64
- ^ Strabo, XI, 8, 2
- ^ Ambaseos Alexandrou, III, 8, 3
- ^ Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.
- ^ Herodotus Book VII, 64
- ^ Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50
- ^ See: Lib.xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod
- ^ See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II.35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.
- ^ Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40.260; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; See also: India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala etc.
- ^ Geography VI, 12, 1f; VI, 13; 1f, VI, 15, 1f
- ^ Megasthenes, Indika, FRAGM.XX.B.; FRAGM. LVI.; FRAGM. LVI. B., J. W. McCrindle's; Pliny. Hist. Nat. V1. 21.9-22. 1.; Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11.; Solinnus. 52. 6-17. See: http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm
- ^ Qv: Fragment IV, Strabo XV.i. II, p 689
- ^ Ref: Sumangavilasini, I.1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65
- ^ Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj
- ^ Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510, E. J. Rapson (Ed); Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 46, Dr M. R. Singh.
- ^ Some writers interpret the Darian inscription as locating Sakas Haumavarka north of Suguda (Sogdiana), in the plains of Jaxartes in the Issyk-kul Lake area. Para-Sugudma seems a more reasonable location for Saka Haumavarka because there was a different Sakas settlement near Suguda to the north of Jaxartes in the lower valleys near Aral. Further, in reference to the Transoxiana Sakas, Arrian mentions the Sakas living not far from Bactria and Sugada, likely an allusion to Haumavarka Sakas living in Tashkant, Fargana and Kashgar (See: History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 120).
- ^ See discussion in 'Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country', 1981, p 296 sqq., Dr J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee
- ^ Lohan paramakambojanrishikan uttaranpi...Mahabharata 2.27.25. See Ganguli's Trans: http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm. But it may be noted that Mr Ganguli has erroneously translated the expression Parama Kambojas as Eastern Kambojas which designation for Parama Kambojas is not correct and is misleading. Therefore see: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; cf: A Geographical Text of Puranas: A Further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No 1, Feb 1962, pp 112- sqq.; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, pp 207-14 etc
- ^ Dr Robert Shafer has recently reported that the Shakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Sugudas, etc were the left-over population of the Indo-Iranian Aryans after Aryans latter had moved from their original home in Central Asia to Iran and India (See Report: Ethnography of Ancient India, p 43, Robert Shafer)
- ^ Pirart 1998:542; Linguistic aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, section 3.5. (Pre-IE substratum in Indo-Aryan: language X), Dr. Koenraad ELST, see link: http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66-70, Dr H. W. Bailey etc.
- ^ See: Alam-shahir, p 18; Kamboj Itihaas, 1971, H. S. Thind.
- ^ J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans & edited Dr R. C. Majumdar, 1927, p 275, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
- ^ Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
- ^ op cit., 1927, p 268, 278, Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr R. C. Majumdar
- ^ op cit., 1927, p 284, McCrindle, Majumdar
- ^ H. C. Seth, P. C. Baghchi, Buddha Prakash, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S Kirpal Singh
- ^ Raghuvamsa 4.68-71.
- ^ Rajatarangini 4.163-165
- ^ See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 91-92, S Kirpal Singh ; On Kamboja-Kumuda and Komdei connection, see detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 48-49, 155, 299-300, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh.
- ^ See: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, 159, S Kipral Singh
- ^ Lohan.ParamaKambojan.Rishikanuttaranpi
- ^ Ancient Kamboja, in Iran and Islam, 1971, p 65, H. W. Bailey
- ^ Kaambhoja.yavaneshen Vabhore.n vipatitah |tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra || 223 ||(Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatarangini Sangraha: p 110).
- ^ Dr Michael Witzel asserts that name Kamboja has also been transmitted as Ambautai by Ptolemy without the typical prefix K. Ptolemy (Geography 6.18.3) reports a section of people called Ambautai who were located on southern side of Paropamisus (Hindukush) towards Kabol valley. Dr Michael and some other scholars asserts that Ambaurai = (K)ambautai = Kamboja. It is also asserted that –tai in Ambautai is a Scythian suffix (Italo Ronca, Ostiran und Zentralasien bei Ptolemeios, Diss. Mainz 1968., p 121; cf also Bulitai]"; Hydronomy of Nepal, Dr Michael Witzel, p 40, fn 98.). The Ambautai here apparently refers to the cis- Hindukush branch of Kambojas if the interpretation of Dr Michael is to be believed. And Geography implies they were Scythians people. Thus the Kambojas lying on the southern side of Hindukush were also included in the Scythian category of Classical writers.
- ^ Ref: La vieille route de l'Inde de Bactres à Taxila, p 271, Dr A Foucher; See entry Kamboja in online "Heritage du Sanskrit Dictionnaire, sanskrit-francais", 2008, p 101, Gerard Huet, which defines Kamboja as: clan royal [kṣatriya] Kamboja des Śakās. See link: [1]; See also Serge Thion: On Some Cambodian Words, Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter (NEWSLETTER is edited by Scott Bamber and published in the Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies; printed at Central Printery; the masthead is by Susan Wigham of Graphic Design (all of The Australian National University); Cf: Indian Culture, 1934, p 193, Indian Research Institute - India; cf: Notes on Indo-Scythian chronology, Journal of Indian History, xii, 21; Corpus Inscrioptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, pp xxxvi, 36, Dr S Konow; Cf: History of Indian Administration, p 94, Dr B N Puri. Serge also quotes the following references on Kambojas being a Royal clan of the Sakas: Rock Edict 13, 30 (See Bloch). In fact the Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions as interpreted by Dr S Konow (Corpus Inscrioptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, pp xxxvi, 36, Dr S Konow) also supports this view. The Kurukshetra war where the Sakas/Tukharas/Yavans are said to have fought under the supreme command of Sudakshina Kamboja (See: MBH 5.19.21-22), also affirms this view.
- ^ . Shakanam pahlavana.n cha daradanam cha ye nripahKambojarishika ye cha pashchimanupakash cha ye(MBH 5/5/15.)
- ^ Udichya Kamboja Shakaih Khashaish cha (MBH 5/159/20) .
- ^ Mahabharata 12.65.13-14
- ^vibhuuamana vatena bahurupa ivambudah/Sudakshinashcha Kambojo yavanaishcha shakaistatha|| 21upajagama kauravyamakshauhinya visham pate |tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau ||22 (MBH 5/19/21-22).
- ^ Kaamboja Yavanaan caiva Shakaan pattanaani ca |Anvikshya Varadaan caiva Himavantam vicinvatha || 12 ||(Ramayana 4.43.12).
- ^ Ramayana 1/55/2-3
- ^ 14.01-19
- ^ e.g Vayu Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padama Purana (6.21.16-33) etc etc.
- ^ Ete hyapi 'ganah pancha' haihayarthe parakraman... (Brahama Purana 8.36).
- ^ Ref: Kalika Purana, III(6), 22-40).
- ^ Manusmiriti X.43-44
- ^ Mahabharata 13/33/20-2.
- ^ Atri-Samhita, VII.2; History of Dharmaśāstra: (ancient and Mediæval Religious and Civil Law), 1930, p 384, P. V. Kane, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, India.(Bombay); A Corpus of Indian Studies, Eassays in honor of Gaurinath Sastri, 1980, p 396, Gauri Natha Bhattacharya, A. L. Bhasham, Gaurinath Sastria.
- ^ Mudrarakshas, II.
- ^ Brhatkatha 10.1.285-86
- ^ Kambojadhybya iti vachyam Vartika (Katyayana); See: Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 234, Dr B. C. Law
- ^ XI.8.2.
- ^ History and Culture of Indian People,The Age of Imperial Unity, p 11, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 692,717, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
- ^ Aseni, Osii(=Asii) and Asoi clans are also referenced by Pliny (Pliny: Hist Nat., VI.21.8-23.11, List of Indian races) and he locates them all in southern side of Hindukush. Bucephala was the capital of Aseni which stood on Hydaspes (Jhelum) (See: Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies, p 236, Dr W. W. Tarn; Political History of Indian People, 1996, p 232, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee). Alexander had named this city after his horse Becephalus when it had died sometime in June of 326 BC after being fatally wounded at the Battle of Hydaspes with king Porus (Paurava) of Punjab
- ^ History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 111; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692.
- ^ For Asii = Aswa = Horse-people, see: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, reprint (2002), pp 53-54, 64 fn 1 etc
- ^ MBH 8.38.13-14, 10.13.1-2; 7.23.42-43 etc.
- ^ For Asii/Aswa/Assaceni/Aspasio connection with horse, refer to Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), James Tod. E.g: "In Aswa, we have ancient race peopled on both sides of Indus and probable etymon of Asia. The Assaceni, the Ari-aspii, the Aspasians and (the Asii) whom Strabo describes as Scythic race have same origin. Hence Asi-gurh (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia" (See: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64 fn 1. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod.
- ^ For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: The Pathans, 1958, pp 37, 55-56, Olaf Caroe.
- ^ Pliny also refers to horse clans like Aseni, Osii, Asoi living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kambojas of Indian texts). See: Hist. Nat. VI 21.8-23.11; See Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trans. and edited by Dr J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30-174.
- ^ Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi:MBH 2.27.25; Kambojarishika ye cha MBH 5.5.15 etc.
- ^ Political History of Ancient India, 19996, Commentary, p 719, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
- ^ cf: "It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as Scythian people, particiapated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other nomadic people in about the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was put to end in c 130/29 BCE due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B. N. Mukerjee).
- ^ It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i.e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in second century BCE, it became a part of Tukharistan. Around 4th-5th century AD, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha, a 5th c Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (4.68-70). They have also been attested as Kiumito by 7th c Chinese pilgrim Hiun Tsang. Eighth century king of Kashmir, king Lalitadiya had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by Rajatarangini of Kalhana (See: Rajatarangini 4.163-65). Here they are mentined as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, Dr D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BCE under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley.
- ^ There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (Dr N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression satam Kambojikanam kanayanam i.e a hunderd maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya and in Mongolian as Togar ulus-un yagun ükin. Thus Kamboja has been rendered as Tho-gar or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, H. W. Bailey Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950 , pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey.
- ^ Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava.
- ^ Serindia, Vol I, 1980 Edition, p 8, M. A. Stein
- ^ Op cit p 693, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Early History of North India, p 3, Dr S. Chattopadhyava; India and Central Asia, p 126, Dr P. C. Bagchi
- ^ Epigraphia Indiaca XIV, p 291 Dr S Konow; Greeks in Bactria and India, p 473, fn, Dr W. W. Taran; Yuan Chwang I, p 259-60, Watters; Comprehensive History of India, Vol I, p 189, Dr N. K. Sastri; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, 122; History and Culture of Indian People, Classical Age, p 617, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
- ^ Scholars like Dr E. J. Rapson, Dr L. Petech etc also connect Ki-pin with Kapisha. Dr Levi holds that prior to 600 AD, Ki-pin denoted Kashmir, but after this it implied Kapisha See Discussion in The Classical Age, p 671.
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, II. 1. XX f; cf: Early History of North India, pp 54, Dr S Chattopadhyaya.
- ^ India and Central Asia, 1955, p 124, Dr P. C. Bagch; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 47, Dr M. R. Singh.
- ^ See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p fn 13, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Chilas, Islamabad, 1983, no 72, 78, 85, pp 98, 102, A. H. Dani; The Śakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 38, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians.
- ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part 1, p xxxvi, see also p 36; Bihar and Orisaa Research Society, Vol XVI, 1930, part III and IV, p 229 etc
- ^ Dr Buddha Prakash has identified some of the modern castes of the Punjab with ancient tribes which came from Central Asia and settled in India. Dr Prakash has correctly related the modern Kamboj/Kamboh to the Iranian Kambojas who belonged to the domain of Kumuda-dvipa of the Puranas or the Komdei of Ptolemy's Geography (Political and Social Movements in Ancient Punjab, Dr. Buddha Prakash; See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, 59/159, S. Kirpal Singh). This was the habitat of the Parama Kambojas referred to in Mahabharata (MBH 2.27.25) and were located in Transoxiana territory in Shakadvipa (Ibid, S Kirpal Singh). Dr Buddha Prakash further states that the people of Soi clan of Punjab are descended from the Sai-Wang (Saka). It is not mere coincidence that modern Kamboj of Punjab have prominent clan names like Soi, Asoi and Sahi/Shahi: See link for Kamboj clan names: [[[kamboj#List of Kamboj Gotras .28clans.29|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamboj#List of Kamboj Gotras .28clans.29]]]. Clan name Soi can be linked to Sai-Wang as Dr Buddh Prakash has shown. Similarly, Asoi clan of Kamboj can also be very well related to or connected with Asii or Asio of Strabo (See: Strabo XI.8,2.) which clan name undoubtedly represents people connected with horse-culture, which the ancient Kambojas pre-eminently were. The above evidence thus again points to a connection of the Sai/Sai-wang mentioned in Chinese chronicles and the Asii/Asio clan mentioned in Strabo's accounts with the Scythian Kambojas i.e Parama Kambojas.
- ^ Justin XL.II.2)
- ^ Sathmoi Parthikoi, 18.
- ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 693.
- ^ See refs: The Sakas in India, p 14, Dr S. Chattopadhyaya; The Development of Khroshthi Script, p 77, Dr C. C. Dasgupta; Hellenism in Ancient India, p 120, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 308, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 169, S Kirpal Singh etc
- ^ Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Parts III and IV, 1930, p 229; Hindu Polity, 1943, p 144, Dr K. P. Jayswal
- ^ The Sakas in India and their Impact on Indian life and culture, 1976, pp 28, 24, Dr V. M. Mohan.
- ^ Mahabharata 12.101.5.
- ^ Journal of Asiiatic Society of ofBengal, Vol XLIII., part I, 1874, pp 260, 271; Helleniosm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, G. N. Banerjee
- ^ Geography in Ancient Indian Inscriptions, Up to 650 A.D., 1973, p 11, Parmanand Gupta.
- ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121, (Ed) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Ancient India, 2003, p 116, Dr V. D. Mahajan
- ^ Epigraphia Indica, IX, p 138ff; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1906, p 207f, 215f.
- ^ Journal of Royal Asoiatic Society, 1906, p 215.
- ^ Hist & Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121; Ancient India, 2002, p 416, Dr V. D. Mahajan; Cf: Catalogue Of The Coins Of The Andhra Dynasty, The Western Ksatrapas, The Traikutaka Dynasty...., p xcix, fn 1, Dr E. J. Rapson; Advanced History of India, 1971, p 155, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, G Srinivasachari, etc. IMPORTANT NOTE: The term IRANIAN ELEMENTS here refers to the KAMBOJAS. See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 169, Kirpal Singh etc.
- ^ Cf: Ancient Persia, 2001, p 111, Josef Wiesehofer, Azizeh Azedi.
- ^ Cf: The dynasty of Maues (Id. Sec 13, 29). The difficulty of distinguishing between Scythic (Sakas) and Iranic (Pahlavas etc) invaders in India during this period is well known. THE PROPER NAMES AFFORD THE ONLY MEANS OF MAKING A DISTINCTION BETWWEEN THEM, AND A CONSIDERATION OF THESE SUPPLIES IS NO CERTAIN GUIDE, since names derived from both sources are applied to members of the SAME FAMILIY. The reason for this confusion is admirably explained by Dr Thomas. He says (J.R.A.S., 1906, p 215): "It would seem probable that the tribes from Eastern Iran who had invaded India included adverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that it is not possible to assert that one dynasty is Parthian (Iranic) and the other is Saka (Scythic). A regular invasion by Parthian empire seems to be not recorded and, a priori, highly probable. We must think rather of inroads by the adventurers of various origins among whom one or another, as Maues, was able to assert temporary supremacy" (See quote in: Catalogue Of The Coins Of The Andhra Dynasty, The Western Ksatrapas, The Traikutak Dynasty And The Bodhi Dynasty: The Western Ksatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty and the "Bodhi" Dynasty, with One Map and Twenty-one Plates, p xcix, fn 1, Dr E. J. Rapson).
- ^ The Sakas before their entry into India probably lived for a long time in Iranian uplands under Parthian rulers. There must have been a good deal of admixture of the Scythians, Parthians and the Iranian elements among the early Sakas (Advanced History of India, 1971, p 155, Dr K. A. N. Sastri).
- ^ Dr D. C. Sircar, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ Dr J. L. Kamboj, Dr Thomas, Dr J. N. Banerjea.
- ^ Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, 2001, p 111, Josef Wiesehofer, Azizeh Azodi.
- ^ See: Detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, 1981, pp 296-30, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 158-61, 166-70, S Kirpal Singh .
- ^ taih asit samvrita bhuumih Shakaih-Yavana mishritaih || 1.54-21 ||taih taih Yavana-Kamboja barbarah ca akulii kritaah || 1-54-23 ||tasya humkaarato jatah Kamboja ravi sannibhah |udhasah tu atha sanjatah Pahlavah shastra panayah || 1-55-2 ||yoni deshaat ca Yavanah Shakri deshat Shakah tathaa |roma kupesu Mlecchah ca Haritah sa Kiratakah || 1-55-3 ||.
- ^ The Śakas in India, 1981, p 12, Satya Shrava; Journal, 1920, p 175, University of Calcutta. Department of Letters; India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, p 100, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Indological Studies, 1950, p 32, Dr B. C. Law; Political History of India from the Accession of Parikshit to the Coronation of Bimbisara, 1923, Page iii, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 4, Raychaudhury; Indological Studies, 1950, p 4, Dr B. C. Law.
- ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 3-4.
- ^viparite tada loke purvarupa.n kshayasya tat || 34 ||bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa |mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah || 35 ||Andhrah Shakah Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah |Kamboja Bahlikah Shudrastathabhira narottama || 36 ||— (MBH 3.188.34-36).
- ^ Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India, 2007, p 358, Johannes Bronkhorst.
- ^ The Great Epic of India: Its Character and Origin, 1901, p 393, Edward Washburn Hopkins - Mahābhārata; Materials for the Study of the Early History of the Vaishnava Sect, 1975, p 42, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri - Vaishnavism; Hellenism in Ancient India, 1920, p 231, Gauranga Nath Banerjee - Hellenism; See also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 4; Journal, 1920, p 176, Dept. of Letters, University of Calcutta, University of Calcutta Dept. of Letters - Buddhism.
- ^ MBH 5. 9. 65; Dates of the Buddha, 1987, p 114, Shriram Sathe; Aśoka , 1955, p 28, Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar.
- ^ Kambojas and Yavanas are described as Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: See: Mahabharata 7.7.14; The Kambojas and Gandharas are described as expert-fighters on horse-back: See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500-700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Military Wisdom in the Purānas, 1979, p 64, P. Sensarma; Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin; Kashmir Polity, C. 600-1200 A.D., 1986, p 237, V. N. Drabu; Polity in the Agni Purāna, 1965, Bambahadur Mishra etc etc.
- ^ Op cit., p 392, Edward Washburn Hopkins.
- ^ MBH XIII.207.43.
- ^ Cf: Op. Cit, p 394, Edward Washburn Hopkins.
- ^ Cf: "After the disintegration of Mauryan empire, the insecured frontier region of north-western part of India invited several foreign invaders i.e Yavasnas, Sakas-Kambojas, Pahlavas from western and Central Asia who came in India through migrations and invasions…The Moral and social degradation in the Indian society is indicated due to foreign invasions. Mahabharata states that Andhara, Sakas, Kambojas, Pulinda, Yavans, Vahlikas, Sudras, Abhiras, Mlechchas, will rule over the land and also will be addicted to falsehood" (Ref: Social Justice: Problems & Perspectives :{Seminar Proceedings of March 5-7, 1995}, Edition 1996, P 173, Jhinkoo Yadav, Suman Gupta, Chandrajeet Yadav); See also: Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, 1981, J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ Matsya Purana, -- A Study, pp 228-230, V. S. Aggarwal.
- ^ Note: Others, however, identify king Kali with Buddhist Maurya king Brihadratha, while king Kalki (=Pramati) is identified with Brahmanical king Pusyamitra Sunga.
- ^ Kalki Purana, Chapter 20/40 sqq; See also: Kalki Purana, 2004, p 58, (See pp 60, 61 also), B K Chaturvedi. See link: [1].
- ^ ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah|Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran||Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan|hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate|| (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra).
- ^ Kathasritsagara 18.1.76-78.
- ^ Cf:In the Katha- Saritasagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and Persians (See: Ref: Reappraising the Gupta History, 1992, p 169, B. C. Chhabra, Sri Ram.
- ^ Cf: Vikrama Volume, 1948, p xxv, Vikramāditya Śakāri.
- ^ Vikramāditya of Ujjayinī: The Founder of the Vikrama Era, 1951, p 114, Rajbali Pandey.
- ^ Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putrasa. See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 398, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 307, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-221, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 168, S Kirpal Singh.
- ^ Corpus Inscrioptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, pp xxxvi, 36, S Konow; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - 1834, p 142, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Early Inscriptions of Mathurā: A Study, 1980, p 27, Kalyani Das; Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr Radha Kumud Mukerjee; History of Indian Administration - 1968, p 94, Dr B. N Puri; These Kamboja People, 1979, p 142; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 168, Kirpaql Singh; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 227/228, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī; Cf: Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen - 1931, p 12, Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Göttingische anzeigen von gelehrten sachen; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 306-09.
- ^ MBH 12.101.5.
- ^ (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
- ^ India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr R. K. Mukerjee
- ^ History and Archaeology of India's Contacts with Other Countries, from Earliest Times to 300 B.C., 1976, p 153, Shashi Asthana.
- ^ See also: Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, p 124.
- ^ Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1926, p 11, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute - Indo-Aryan philology.
- ^ In the 1818 census of India, an account has been reported that the Kambohs (Kambojs) who live around Mathura in the United Province (UP), were originally Kshatriyas (See: The Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh, 1896, p 118, William Crooke; Tribes of Ancient India, 1977, p 99, Mamata Choudhury---Ethnology; Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes, p 89, Shyam Singh Shashi). Very Interestingly, the Hindu texts Ashtadhyayi, Manusmriti, Mahabharata, numerous Puranas and Kautiliya's Arthashastra etc also record that the Kambojas were Kshatriyas. The above account of census 1881 also seems to be line with the Mahabharata's account that the Kambojas had taken control of Mathura around the commencement of Christian era. Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions also supports the Kambojas' presence in Mathura.
- ^ Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick.
- ^ This Kambhoja country of southern India as hinted at by Syed Siraj ul Hassanis, in all probability, is the colonial settlement of the migrating Kambojas, who in alliance with the Sakas, Pahlavas had entered into and spread into south-western and southern India prior to/around the beginning of Christian era.
- ^ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, 1862, p 27, Asiatic Society of Bombay - Orient; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 78, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies.
- ^ See: J.R.A S. of Bombay (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Bombay Branch, p 25/26.
- ^ Chapter 57.35.
- ^ Markendeya 58.30-32.
- ^ Le Monde oriental, 1941, p 94, Kirfel, Bharatavarsa Bhuvankosa, 1931, pp 25, 29, 31, Kirfel.
- ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1939, p 232, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Middle East.
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, 1997, p 2466, M. R. Singh, Editor Nagendra Kumar Singh - Religion.
- ^ Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 163, M. R. Singh.
- ^ nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja Sindhu Sauvirah|hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surastra Badara Dravidah|| (Brihat Samhita 14/17-19).
- ^ Indian Antiquary, 1893, p 171, J. F. Fleet; Indo-Greek numismatics, 1970, 14, Richard Bertram Whitehead.
- ^ See also: Brihat Samhita, Journal R.A.S.N. S. V. 84; Varāhamihira's Bṛhat Saṁhitā, 1981, p 174, M. Ramakrishna Bhat; The Fundamental Unity of India, 2004, p 91, Radha Kumud Mookerji.
- ^ Indo-Aryans: Contributions Towards the Elucidation of Their Ancient and ..., 1881, p 214, Rājendralāla Mitra - India.
- ^ India Greeks, 1970, p 14. Richard Bertram Whitehead; The Metaphysic of Experience in Advaita Vedānta: A Phenomenological Approach, 1983, p 174, Debabrata Sinha, Manjari Ohala - Hindu astrology; Parsis of Ancient India, 1920, p 9,Shapurji Kavasji Hodivala, Śāpurajī Kāvasajī Hoḍīvālā - Parsees; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland , 1834, p 218, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Asia.
- ^ Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature ..., 1910, p 302, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī, Al-Bīrūnī, Trans: Eduard Sachau - Hindu Chronology; Alberuni's Indica: A Record of the Cultural History of South Asia about A.D , 1973, p 28, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī, Eduard Sachau,Hindu Civilization.
- ^ Ed. F. W. Thomas, pp 20-22
- ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI-2, 1950, p 127.
- ^ Barhaspatya Sutram =: Aphorisms of Brhaspati on Indian Polity -1998, p 38, Brahaspati, Balram Srivastava.
- ^ Vishnudharmottara Purana I.9.6.
- ^ Geog. Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206
- ^ Sorata Gurjara Kachcha-Kamboja-Gauda rukha: (Raajbilaas 1/122).
- ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 127; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305.
- ^ pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah
carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah (Garuda Purana 1/15/13). - ^ e.g: "The people of Pulinda, Ashmaka and Jimutanya, as well Kambhojas, Karnatas and Ghatas are Dakshinapathvasi (i.e live in southern quarter); the people of Amvasthas, Dravidias, Lattas, Kambojas, Strimukhas, Sakas and Anarthas (Anartas) are Nairritis (i.e live in south-west quarter)"...See Garuda Purana, Trans: Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1908, p 148.
- ^ For more references attesting Kamboja settlement in south-west India in post-Christian times, See also: India as Seen in the Brhatsamhitā of Varāhamihira, 1969, A. M. Shastri, Reader in Ancient Indian History & Culture, Nagpur University; Le Monde oriental, 1941, p 94; Modi Memorial Volume: Papers on Indo-Iranian and Other Subjects, 1930, p 356, Sir Jivanji Jamshedji Modi); The Social History of Kamarupa, 1983, p 132, Nagendranath Vasu; cf: Bharatavarsa, Kirfel, p 29, 3; cf also: The Social History of Kamarupa, 1983, p 191, Nagendranath Vasu, for Kamboja location adjoining Karnata and Lata countries in southern India.
- ^ Ancient India, p 7, S. K. Aiyangar; Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, P. N. Banerjee.
- ^ See: History of Ceylon, 1973, pp xxxi, 91, K. M. De Silva, Hem Chandra Ray. See also references quoted in the text.
- ^ See: A History of Architecture in All Countries: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, 1876, p 28, James Fergusson - 1876 .
- ^ For more references on Kamboja intrusion into Gujerat/Surashtra, see also: Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, pp 1-68, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Dept. of History); Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1939, p 232, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
- ^ Ancient India, III, pp 94, 125, T. L. Shah.
- ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, pp 286-87, 313-14.
- ^ See the expression: (Saurashtransbahlikanchandrachitranstathaivacha).
- ^ see expression (Surashtransabahlikassudrabhirastathaivacha).
- ^ Geographiacal Data in Early Puranas, A Critical Study, p 127, Dr M. R. Singh; The Purana Text of the Dynastics of the Kali Age, p 50, Dr P. E. Pargiter.
- ^ Periplus p 174; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India, p 174; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, p 127, Dr M. R. Singh etc
- ^ Vayu (V) Purana I.47.444; Brahmanda Purana (V), I, 2.18.46-47; Matsya Purana 120.45.46;Alberuni's India, I,261ff; Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, J. W. McCrindle, p 67n, J. W. Mccrindle
- ^ Mahabharata 2.51..12; 52.13; 4.87.7; 121.13
- ^ Mahabharata II.27.25
- ^ Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |KambojaRishika ye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.4.18||.
- ^ Bengali Ramayana, Kishkindha Kanda, XLI.16; Real Ramayana, Kishkindha Kanda, XLI.19; Cf: Works, 1865, p 167, H. H. Wilson.
- ^ Mahabharata 8.5.20; MBH 6:9.
- ^ Kasika IV.2.132
- ^ Arsikas of Mahabhasya IV.2.2.
- ^ Brhat Samhita, 16.11ab, Varahamihira; See: Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p. 280, M. R. Singh.
- ^ Markandeya Purana Chapter 58.20-28.
- ^ The Matsya Puranam, 1917, pp. 50-51, Srisa Chandra Vasu.
- ^ Epigraphia Indica, VIII, p 60.
- ^ Vayu (V) Purana I.47.444; Brahamanda Purana (V), I, 2.18.46-47; Matsya Purana 120.45.46;Alberuni's India, I,261ff
- ^ Vayu (V), I,47.44; Brahmanda (V), I, 2.18.46-47,; Matsya 120.45-46
- ^ MBH XII.207.43
- ^ MBH (Critical), II.29.15; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 170, Dr M. R. Singh
- ^ Perplus, p 71.
- ^ cf: Interaction Between India and Western World, pp 75-93, H. G. Rawlinson; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 306; cf: India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159-60, 168-69, S Kirpal Singh.
[edit] Books and Periodicals
Political History of ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. raychaudhury
Hindu Polity, A Constitutional history of India in Hindu Times, 1978, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, Dr M. R. Singh
Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kipal Singh
India and Central Asia, 1955, Dr P. C. Bagchi
Geography of Puranas, 1973, Dr S. M. Ali
Greeks in Bactria and India, Dr W. W. Tarn
Early History of North India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Sakas in Ancient India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Development of Kharoshthi script, C. C. Dasgupta
Ancient India, 1956, Dr R. K. Mukerjee
India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash
These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S. Dardi
Ancient India, Vol III, Dr T. L. Shah
Hellenism in Ancient India, Dr G. N. Banerjee
Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol XLIII, Part I, 1884
Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Part III, & IV, 1930
Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Anabaseeos Alexanddrou, Arrian
Geography, by Ptolemy
Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions
Corpus Inscriptionium Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, Dr S Konow
[edit] See also
- Cheema
- Kambojas
- Parama Kamboja
- Parama Kamboja Kingdom
- Rishikas
- Asii
- Komedes
- Tusharas
- Language and ethnicity of Kambojas
- Migration of Kambojas
- India and Central Asia
- Sakas
- Indo-Scythians
- Scythians
- Yavanas
- Pahlavas
- Kamuia
- Aiyasi Kamuia
- Arta Kamuia
- Kharaosta Kamuio
- Maues
- Mathura Lion Capital
Category:Iranian peoples Category:Kambojas Category:Scythians Category:Eurasian nomads Category:History of India Category:History of Afghanistan
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